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J LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. J 



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| UNITED STATES. OF AMERICA 'J 



ILLUSTEATED LESSONS 



OUK LANGUAGE; 



HOW TO SPEAK AND WRITE CORRECTLY. 



DESIGNED TO TEACH 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, WITHOUT ITS TECHNICALITIES, 



BY 



G. IV QUACKENBOS, LL. D., 

AUTHOR Q\ "FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION," "ADVANCED COURSE OP COMPOSITION 
AND RHETORIC^ "AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR," RTC. 




NEW YORK: 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 

549 AND 551 BROADWAY. 
1876. 






BY THE SAME AUTHOR 



An English Grammar: 12mo, pp. 288. 

Fir at Lessons in Composition : In which the Principles of the Art are developed 
in connection with the Principles of Grammar. 12mo, pp, 182. 

Advanced Course of Composition and Hhetoric : A Series of Practical 
Lessons on the Origin, History, and Peculiarities of the English Language, Punctu- 
ation, Taste, the Pleasures of the Imagination, Figures, Style and its Essential Prop- 
erties, Criticism and the various Departments of Prose and 'Poetical Composition. 
New and Ee vised Edition. 12mo, pp. 450. 

Elementary History of the United States: Made easy and interesting for 
Beginners. With numerous Illustrations and Maps. 16mo, pp. 216. 

Illustrated School History of the United States : Containing Biographical 
Notices of Distinguished Men, numerous Maps, Plans of Battle-fields, and Pictorial 
Illustrations 12mo, pp. 512. 

A Natural Philosophy : Embracing the most recent Discoveries in Physics. With 
Practical Exercises and 335 Illustrations. 12mo, pp. 450. 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1876, by 

G. P. QUACKENBOS, 
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



PREFACE. 



This little volume is the result of an earnest effort to teach young chil- 
dren, in a natural and common-sense way, how to speak and write cor- 
rectly, — to enable them to master the leading principles of English Gram- 
mar, without its technicalities, easily and thoroughly because intelligently 
and practically. It leaves out of sight the formidable legion of inflections 
and conjugations, divisions and subdivisions, observations and exceptions, 
once considered indispensable, and seeks in stead from the very outset to 
familiarize the learner with the use of language as an every-day reality of 
prime importance, — not as a mere theoretical abstraction. It substitutes 
for the dry routine of verbal parsing, with its endless round of definitions 
and rules, a variety of oral and written exercises teaching the art of expres- 
sion inductively ; which exercises, it is believed, if faithfully followed, will 
lead the youthful traveller by the easiest and pleasantest route through the 
cunning mazes of speech. It aims especially to do away with rote-learning, 
and make the language-lesson a vehicle of valuable mental discipline. 

The subject is developed substantially by Object-lessons. Correct 
models are given, to be written on the black-board, considered and dis- 
cussed by the class. Attention is directed to the special point to be taught, 
by questions which the learner is required to answer from his own inspec- 
tion. He is thus made to deduce the principle for himself; and it is then 
embodied in few words for memorizing, practically applied, and kept in 
mind thereafter by its repeated application in subsequent exercises. Pic- 
torial illustrations from new designs made expressly for the work aid in this 
object-treatment of the subject, and will prove, it is hoped, no less useful 
than attractive. 

Among the chief features of this manual are the extent and variety of 
its Exercises. Brought fully within the scholar's reach by models pre- 
viously given, they will be found to divest the subject of its proverbial dry- 
ness, — indeed, to make what was formerly repulsive one of the pleasantest 
of studies. Let the student in no case attempt the Exercise till he per- 



4 PREFACE. 

fectly understands the preceding text ; and see that each Lesson is mas- 
tered before a new one is taken up. No link must be defective in a chain 
that is to be strong and permanent. 

It is claimed that this book is complete in itself. It is not one of a 
Series. It presupposes no knowledge of Grammar ; and unless, when used 
as a text-book by an intelligent teacher, it enables the faithful student, 
thrown upon the world with no other grammatical instruction, to speak and 
write correctly in all ordinary cases, it must be pronounced a failure. In 
ordinary cases; but, of course, those who would become proficient in all the 
niceties of language, in technicalities of nomenclature, in exceptions as well 
as general rules — students of High Schools and Academies, for instance — 
will need a comprehensive Grammar to follow it. For any such text-book, 
however, these Lessons will be found a fitting introduction, as they cover a 
much wider field than is usually embraced in the Elementary Grammars, 
and, dealing with no controverted points, are adapted to any system the 
teacher may prefer. It is believed that they will teach more grammar than 
these Elementary text-books, for which they are offered as a substitute, and 
do it more thoroughly and easily. 

Much of our systematic grammar consists of matter practically of little 
importance because it has no bearing on correctness of speaking or writing. 
It is by passing over such matter that room is found for the great variety 
of Exercises here presented in connection with points on which there is 
special liability to error. Besides unusually full and thorough practice in 
the correction of false syntax, and in composition from the very commence- 
ment, punctuation, sentential analysis (according to a simple system, unen- 
cumbered by diagrams and requiring no elaborate preparation on the teach- 
er's part), the leading principles of good style, oral criticism, business cor- 
respondence with a variety of mercantile forms, and especially the means of 
securing fluency of expression, receive careful attention. 

Those whose experience in teaching Grammar according to the time- 
honored method has not been satisfactory, and who feel that something 
more is needed, are particularly solicited to examine, to test, the system 
here presented, in the hope that they may find it what they have long 
wanted, — or at least an advance in that direction. 

A full Alphabetical Index at the end of the volume will facilitate refer- 
ence, and takes the place of a Table of Contents. 

New York, Jwie 12, 1876. 



LESSONS IN OUR LANGUAGE. 



We all know how to talk. We talk, in order to ex- 
press some Thought that is in our minds. 

We express thoughts with Words. Each word means 
something. By putting words together, we can make them 
express any thought we wish. 

When a child begins to talk, it uses single words. But 
it soon learns to put two or three words together — then 
more — and thus it forms Sentences, 

We can form sentences without speaking a icord. When 
Captain John Smith was taken prisoner by the Indians, soon 
after Virginia was first settled, he told them that, if they 
would agree to release him, they should find in a day or 
two, in a certain place in the woods, a number of articles 
which he named. On going there at the appointed time, 
they found just what he had promised ; and taking him for 
a great magician, they let him go. 

But he was no magician. He did no more than any of 
us could do. He had managed to get a letter to his friends,^ 
telling them what he had promised, and they put the things 
there. Though he had not spoken to his friends, he had ex- 
pressed his thoughts to them. Thoughts, then, can be ex- 
pressed by writing as well as speaking. 

When we speak or write our thoughts, we must use 
words correctly. How to do this, we are going to learn. 



6 



EXPRESSING THOUGHTS. 



Questions. — Why do people talk ? When did you learn to talk ? 
How did you learn to talk ? What do you use, to express your thoughts ? 
Besides talking, what other way is there of expressing thoughts ? 

Of what three letters is the written word far made up V Give the sound 
of each of these letters. Of what three sounds is the spoken word far made 
up ? Of what is a written word made up ? Of what is a spoken word made 
up? What do letters represent? What do words express? What are 
made up of words ? Do you ever hear sentences used, and when ? Do you 
ever read sentences, and when ? What are we going to learn ? 

#l 

LESSON I. 




1. Here comes a load of hay. 

2. The load is drawn by two oxen. 

3. The oxen are driven by a man. 

Jf. Tl%ey are drawing the load to a barn. 

5. On top of the load are three girls. 

6. The girls are riding to the barn. 



SENTENCES, CAPITALS, PERIODS. 7 

How many thoughts are expressed in words beneath 
the engraving ? Then we have six what ? Of what is 
each sentence made up ? Of what are the words made 
up, if read aloud ? Of what, if written ? Write the six 
sentences from dictation, just as they are given, on the 
black-board, slate, or paper. 

You see that each sentence commences with a letter 
larger than the other letters. Such a letter is called a 
Capital. 

You see that at the end of each sentence is a dot. 
This dot shows that the sentence has ended. It is called 
a Period. 

EXERCISE. 

Turn to page 5. Read aloud any six sentences on that page. 

With what does each of the sentences yon have read com- 
mence? With what does each end? What does each express? 
Are the sentences all equally long ? Why is it that some sentences 
contain more words than others? How did you know when each 
of the sentences that you read ended ? What is a capital ? What 
is a period ? 

m 

LESSON II. 

You will see that in each of the six sentences under 
the engraving on page 6, something is affirmed — is said 
to be taking place or doing. 

But words may be put together without affirming 
any thing ; in that case, they do not form a sentence. A 
load of hay is not a sentence. A load drawn by two 
oxen is not a sentence. 

We have sentences, when we affirm something about 
the load ; when we say, A load of hay is heavy. A load 
of hay passed by. 



FORMING SENTENCES.. 



EXEECISE, 



Tell which of the following are sentences, and which are not. 
Make sentences out of such as are not, by putting in or changing 
words. 

Hay on the wagon. Fresh hay smells sweet. The oxen are 
yoked together. The oxen before the wagon. The horns of the 
oxen tipped with brass knobs. The horns of the oxen are very 
large. The man driving the oxen. The man cracks his whip. The 
man walking along. The man whistling as he goes. The girls on 
the load. A capital is larger than the other letters used in a word. 
A period being nothing more than a dot. 

te-- — 

LESSON III. 

This line — is called a Dash. 

A dash is sometimes used to show that a word or 
words are left out. 

EXEECISE. 

Make sentences out of the following, by putting words in place of 
the dashes. Supply capitals and periods where needed. 

Hay — out of grass Hay — in barns, horses and cattle — . 
girls like to — When the girls — , they will get down. After the 
man has driven into the barn, he will — . — will be glad to have 
the yoke taken off from their — As soon as the oxen are unyoked, 
they will — . In cities, we do not often see — 

Write four sentences of your own, about the chickens in the pict- 
ure on page 6. Be sure to spell the words right, and to put them 
together so as to affirm something. 

Write four sentences about the lambs in the picture. 

* To the Teacher. — " Exercises" which the pupil is not specially directed to write, 
may be either recited or written, but it is recommended that they be written. All writ- 
ten Exercises should be examined with reference to neatness as well as correctness. 
Errors of every kind should be underlined, and the pupil required to correct them him- 
self. To train the eye to the detection of written errors, it will be well occasionally to 
have the scholars exchange Exercises, and correct one another's according to the dicta- 
tion of the Teacher. 



SENTENCES EXPRESSING COMMANDS. 



LESSON IV. 

Read the six sentences under the engraving on page 
6 ; in each a statement is made. But a command^ also, 
may be expressed in a sentence. Thus: — 

1. Drive the load of hay to the bam. 

2. Get down, girls, when the oxen stop. 

3. Charles, do not ivhip the oxen. 
Jj,. Come here, pretty lambs. 

5. Be careful to keep in the road. 

6. Look at the swallows flying. 

Each of these sentences expresses a command or re- 
quest. Like the others, each commences with a capital 
and ends with a period. 

Every sentence that expresses a statement or command 
should commence with a capital, and end with a period. 

EXERCISE. 

Make sentences that express a command or request, oy inserting 
a word or icords in place of the dash, using capitals and periods 
where needed: — 

1. Mary and Bertha, take care you do not — 

2. Ida, — Mary and Bertha, or they may slip off 

3. charles, do not — those pretty lambs 

4. — , you noisy old rooster 

5. — the beautiful clouds, tinged with gold 

6. — spreading elm, with its graceful limbs 

7. — whether that ox's foot is — 

8. get — of the oxen, little — 

9. — the barn-door, when — 

10. — at the — on the fence 

11. try whether you can — 

12. — and — the oxen after their day's work 

Write six sentences of your own, expressing commands. 



10 SENTENCES EXPRESSING QUESTIONS. 



LESSON V. 

We have seen that something may be stated or coin- 
manded in a sentence ; a question may also be asked. 

1. Girls, do you like to ride on the hay? 

2. Have you heard the old rooster crow? 

3. Where are the oxen jgoing with that hay ? 
J^. What has frightened the lambs ? 

You see that all these sentences, like the others, com- 
mence with capitals, but they do not end with periods. 
After each is this mark ?, which is called an Interroga- 
tion-point. Interrogation means question. 

Every sentence in which a question is asked, should com- 
mence with a capital, and end with an interrogation-point. 

EXERCISE. 

Complete these sentences, so that they may express questions, and 
place the proper marh after them : — 

1. How do you know that — 2. What color is the prettiest 
for — 3. Why do we have — 4. When was- — 5. Where were 
the first — 6. Who took care of you when — 7. — to write 
exercises? 8. —in England? 9. Is it pleasant to — 10. When 
this mark (?) ends a sentence, what — 

Write six sentences of your own, expressing questions. 



LESSON VI. 

We have seen that in a sentence something may be 
stated, commanded, or ashed ; an exclamation, also, may 
be expressed. For example : — 

1. Hoiv stately the elm-tree looks ! 

2. What a noisy rooster that is on the fence ! 



SENTENCES EXPRESSING EXCLAMATIONS. \\ 

3- What beautiful sunsets ice have this fall ! 
Jj,. How the girls like to ride on a load of hay! 
5. What a good driver Charles is ! 

You see that all these sentences, like the others, com- 
mence with capitals, but they do not end with either 
periods or interrogation-points. After each is this mark !, 
which is called an Exclamation-point. 

Every sentence that expresses an exclamation should com- 
mence with a capital, and end with an exclamation-point. 

EXERCISE. 

Complete these sentences, so that they may express exclamations, 
and place the proper point after them: — 

1. How terrible is — 4. What misery — 

2. What gorgeous — 5. How grateful we — 

3. How few men — 6. What a fine — 

With what two words do these sentences commence? With 
what two words do Sentences 1 — 5, at the beginning of. the Lesson, 
commence? What words generally commence sentences that ex- 
press exclamations ? But remember that a sentence may commence 
with how or what, and not express an exclamation : How did you 
go t What did you see f 

Write six sentences of your own, expressing exclamations. 
n 

LESSON VII. 

EXERCISE. 

Some sentences follow. Tell what each expresses (a statement, a 
command, a question, or an exclamation), and what point should fol- 
low each. Tell where a capital is needed, in stead of a small letter. 

1. To thine own self be true 2. an honest man's the noblest 
work of God 3. how many flowers bloom unseen in the world 4. 
Whose love equals a mother's 5. Can the leopard change his spots 
6. Owe no man any thing 7. we must avoid the appearance of evil. 



12 EXERCISES ON SENTENCES. 

8. What comfort a single word has sometimes brought to the 
afflicted 9. idleness is the parent of crime 10. who goeth a war- 
fare at his own cost 11. a soft answer turneth away wrath 12. 
how wicked it is to deceive 13. love all men as thyself 14. 
where will the weary be at rest 



LESSON VIII. 

A sentence that expresses a statement may, by a slight 
change, be made to express a command, a question, or an 
exclamation. Thus : — 

The tempest rages. (Statement.) 

Let the tempest rage. (Command.) 

Does the tempest rage? (Question.) 

How the tempest rages! (Exclamation.) 

EXERCISE. 

Change each sentence so as to make it express what is directed, 
and place the proper point at the end; — 

1. Roses are generally regarded as the most beautiful of flow- 
ers. {Question.) 2. Did Moses write the first five books of the 
Bible? {Statement.) 3. Our country has made rapid progress. 
{Exclamation.) 4. You should not grieve those you love. {Com- 
mand.) 5. Is gold still found in California? {Statement.) 6. Who 
wrote Pilgrim's Progress? John Bunyan. {Change question and 
answer to one sentence, containing a statement?) 

7. What is Grammar? The art of speaking and writing cor- 
rectly. {Statement.) 8. How many letters are there in the Eng- 
lish language? Twenty-six. {Statement.) 9. How hard it is to 
learn the multiplication-table! {Question; statement.) 10. Dogs 
delight to bark and bite. {Command; question; exclamation.) 
11. What a sweet singer the mocking-bird is ! {Statement; ques- 
tion.) 

Questions,— What may a sentence express? Try to make a sen- 
tence that will not express a statement, a command, a question, or an excla- 



BUILDING UP SENTENCES. 13 

mation. A period must be placed after sentences that express what ? 
What must a sentence express, to require an interrogation-point after it ? 
An exclamation-point after a sentence denotes that it expresses what ? 



— S€— 



LESSON IX. 

Houses are built on a foundation. Brick after brick, 
beam after beam, board after board, are added, till the 
structure is complete. 

So sentences are built. We may start from a foun- 
dation, or Base, and add word after word till the whole 
thought that we desire to convey is expressed. 

We start from the base, Children study. 

We go on to tell what they study : Children study their lessons. 

We may tell how they study their lessons : Children study their 
lessons faithfully, carelessly. 

We may tell what kind of children study faithfully or care- 
lessly : Diligent children study their lessons faithfully. Lazy chil- 
dren study their lessons carelessly. 

We may tell when they study their lessons: Diligent children 
study their lessons faithfully , every afternoon. 

We may tell where they study : Diligent children study their 
lessons faithfully, every afternoon, at home. 

EXERCISE. 

Build up one sentence like the above from each of the follow- 
ing :— 

i (What kind of ?) farmers worJc (how ?) 
Farmers work, j ( where ?) (i n w hat season of the year?) 

r (In what season ?) the (what kind 
The wind whistles. < of?) wind whistles (how?) (through 

( what ?) (where ?) 
Hay is made: out of what? by whom? where? in what 
season ? for what purpose ? 



14 TAKING SENTENCES TO PIECES. 

Fish, are caught: when? what kind of fish? are caught by 

whom ? in what ? for what purpose ? 
Boys have fun : in what season ? how much fun do they have ? 

in doing what ? where ? with whom ? 
Learn to sew, Was discovered. 

LESSON X. 

We may take a house down, board by board, beam by 
beam, brick by brick, till we get to the foundation. So 
we may take a sentence to pieces, part by part, and tell 
what each part denotes, till we reach the Base. 

"Write (on black-board or slates) the following sentence : 
In summer, bees may be seen gathering honey from flow- 
ers, to lay it up in their hives for winter use. 

Take away in summer, which tells when they may be seen. 
What is left ? Is it a sentence ? 

Next take away for winter use, which tells what they lay up 
honey for. What is left ? Is it a sentence ? 

Next take away in their hives, which tells where they lay it up. 
What is left ? Is this still a sentence ? 

Next take away to lay it up, which tells why they gather honey. 
What is left ? Is this a sentence ? 

Next take aw aj from flowers, which tells whence they gather 
honey. What is left ? Is this a sentence ? 

Last of all, take away gathering honey, which tells what they 
may be seen doing. What is left? Is this a sentence? 

Bees may he seen is the base on which this long sentence was 
built up. Build it up again, by adding the parts in succession, going 
backward, and tell what each part denotes. 

If from the base Bees may be seen, we remove any 
one of its four words, will what is left be a sentence ? 

What word in this base expresses the Subject about 
which we say something ? What may be seen ? 

Then bees is the Subject of the sentence. 



WORDS, SOUNDS, LETTERS. 15 

EXERCISE. 

Take to pieces, or analyze, as above, the following sentences: — 
1. Gold was discovered in California, in 1848, near the town of 
Coloma. 2. On a summer morning, the birds warble their sweet 
songs of joy and gratitude. 3. In some countries of Asia, troops 
of jackals follow a lion in the night, to devour what he may leave. 
4. During the Revolutionary War, General Washington with great 
bravery and prudence led the armies of his country till its indepen- 
dence was secured. 

What is the base of each of the above sentences ? What is the 
subject t 



LESSON XL 

As we analyze sentences, so we may analyze words. 

Spoken words, as we learned in Lesson I., are made 
up of sounds. Pronounce the word slate ; analyze it into 
the sounds that compose it. 

There are about forty simple sounds in the English 
language, of which all spoken words are made up. 

Written words are made up of letters, which repre- 
sent sounds. Write the word slate; analyze it into the 
letters that compose it. 

There are twenty-six letters in the English language, 
of which all written words are made up. Taken in order, 
they constitute the Alphabet. Repeat the alphabet. 

Some letters represent more than one sound ; as e, in 
me and met. Give these two sounds of e. 

Some sounds have more than one letter to represent 
them, as the first sound in the words sell, cell. What two 
letters represent this sound ? 

What is the sound, or power, of the letter s in sell? What is the name 
of the letter ? The power of a letter, then, is quite a different thing from 
its name. 



16 LETTERS AND THEIR SOUNDS.— SYLLABLES. 

Sound a, e, i, o, u. Is the sound interrupted by the lips or tongue ? 
Try to sound p alone. Is the sound interrupted ? By what ? Try to sound 
t alone. By what is the sound interrupted ? Can p and t be sounded alone 1 

The letters a, e, i, o, and u, which can be uttered 
freely alone, are called Vowels. 

The other letters, which can not be uttered without 
interruption from the lips or tongue, are called Conso- 
nants. Name the consonants. 

Some words may be analyzed into Syllables, or parts 
pronounced with separate impulses of the voice ; as, 

Hatter, hat-ter (two syllables). 

Policeman, po-lice-man (three syllables). 

Dispensary, dis-pen-sa-ry (four syllables). 

Constantinople, con-stan-ti-no-ple (five syllables). 

EXERCISE. 

Give the different sounds of a, as found in the words can, cane, 
care, call, what. Give the sound of e in he, hen, her : of i in pin, 
pine, pique, fir : of o, in no, not, nor, one : of u, in us, use, fur. 

Give the sound of til in both ; in this. Give the sound of s 
in this; in is. Give the name and the power of the letter f; of 1. 
Spell the word race ; give the three sounds that compose it. Analyze 
orange into its simple sounds. 

Analyze the following words, first into syllables ; then into let- 
ters .-—Dromedary ; sunset; lunatic; cranberry; watermelon; Afri- 
ca; incomprehensible; denominator. 

## 

LESSON XII. 

Every thing that we can see, or hear, or touch, or 
taste, or think of, has a Name. 

Name some things that you see. Name some things 
that you think of. Name some things in the picture. 



NAMES. 



17 




A boy and a girl are skating hand in hand. 
James and Ruth are skating hand in hand. 

A boy and a girl are riding on their sleds. 
John and Mary are riding on their sleds. 

A boy and a girl are sliding on the iee. 
Henry and Ida are sliding on the iee. 



something. 



First we say each time a hoy and a girl are doing 
We give them the same names — that is, Com- 
mon Names — names common to all things of the same 
class. But we do not tell which boy and girl are skating, 
which are riding, or which are sliding. 

But, if we say James and Ruth are skating, we give 
the boy and girl their Proper Names, which distinguish 
them from other boys and girls. Then we tell which 
boy and girl are skating — that is, James and Ruth — not 
John and Mary, or Henry and Ida. 



18 NOUNS, COMMON AND PROPER. 

Names are often called Nouns. 

Are boy and girl proper or common nouns ? John and Mary ? Henry 
and Ida ? Man and woman ? Mr. Smith and Queen Elizabeth ? 

Look at the picture, near the tree : call the two persons standing there 
by common names — by proper names. Look at the animal near the skaters • 
name him by a common noun ; give two or three proper nouns that would 
suit him as a name. 

With what kind of letters do the words James and Ruth, John and 
Mary, Henry and Ida, commence in the sentences at the beginning of the 
Lesson ? With what kind of letters do boy and girl begin ? 

Commence proper nouns with capitals. 

EXERCISE. 

Select the nouns, or names, in the following. Classify them as 
common or proper ; and tell which should commence with a capital, 
in stead of a small letter : — 

Rivers; the Hudson, the ohio, the Mississippi. Mountains; 
the alleghanies, the white mountains. The red sea. What a vir- 
tue is patience ! Rio Janeiro is the largest city in south America. 
Trees.; willow, maple, oak, ash. Have you ever sailed on the Nile, 
the largest river in Africa? Geographers distinguish five oceans; 
the atlantic, pacific, indian, arctic, and antarctic. 

In the last sentence, do you see a little mark used to 
separate the names of the five oceans? This mark (>) is 
called the Comma. 

Names used in a series are separated by the comma. 

Which of the sentences in the above Exercise express a statement ? 
Which expresses a question ? Which expresses an exclamation ? 



LESSON XIII. 

EX ERCISE. 

Write four proper names of boys; four of girls ; four of cities ; 
four of countries. The words boys, girls, cities, countries, are tohat 
kind of nouns f 



EXERCISE ON NOUNS. 19 

Write four names of qualities (as, gentleness) ; four of actions 
(as, walking) : four of virtues (as, temperance) ; four of vices (as, 
drunkenness). What kind of nouns are these f 

A little story follows. Select the nouns, and as you mention 
each tell whether it is proper or common. How many commas do 
you find in the story f 

The Pet Lion. — A gentleman named Trappe, living in Africa, 
caught a young lion, and thought he would hring it up as a pet. 
He called it Leo, let it run about the house, and fed it himself ; so 
that Leo loved his master, and would play with him like a kitten. 
In the course of time, Leo grew to he quite a big lion. 

One day Mr. Trappe fell asleep on the sofa, leaving one of his 
arms hanging down. Leo, who was in the room, came up, and to 
show his affection began to lick his master's hand. But lions have 
very rough tongues, and soon Leo had rubbed the skin off, and 
blood began to ooze out. This was eagerly licked up by the ani- 
mal, and the pain awoke Mr. Trappe. He attempted to draw his 
hand up, to see what was the matter with it, but the lion growled 
and would not let it go. He tried again, but Leo growled louder 
than before. 

Mr. Trappe saw that the taste of blood had changed his pet into 
a wild beast. So, to save his own life, he slipped his other hand 
under his pillow, drew out his pistol, and shot poor Leo through 
the brain. After this, Mr. Trappe never made a pet out of a 
lion. 



LESSON XIV. 

There are several things I wish you to observe about 
the story just given. t 

The three words, The Pet Lion, at the commence- 
ment, tell what the story is about, or form its Title. With 
what kind of letters do these words commence ? Do you 
find these words commencing with capitals, when they 
occur in the story itself? , Kem ember to 



20 TITLES, SIDE-HEADS, PARAGRAPHING. 

Commence with capitals the leading words in the titles 
of stories, books, chapters, and compositions* 

After the title of the story, which forms a side-head, 
you see a period and dash. If the title had been placed 
over the story, a period alone would have been used. 

Set off side-heads with the dash. 

For the most part, one sentence immediately follows 
another. But twice, when we reach the end of a sen- 
tence, we find the rest of the line left blank, and the next 
sentence commencing a new line, a little in from the mar- 
gin. This is calied commencing a new Paragraph. 

Commence a new paragraph, when you pass to a new 
branch of the subject* 

In the story, Mr. is used for Mister. This is called 
an Abbreviation. When we thus shorten a word, we 
place a period after it : thus, P. 0. means post-office ; 
inst., instant ; Esq., Esquire ; IT. S., United States ; etc. 

Use the period, to denote an abbreviation. 

Do you find any interrogation-point or exclamation-point used in the 
story in Lesson XIII. ? Why not ? What mark is used after every sen- 
tence ? What do most of the sentences that you meet with express ? 

Exercise. — Write (or tell, 'if the teacher prefers) the story in 
Lesson XIII. in different words — in your own language. 



LESSON XV. 

Orange ; oranges. 

A river / rivers. 

One mat ; three, ten, fifty, mats. 

Write these words in two columns, as above. Mention each noun in 
the first column, with the corresponding noun in the second. What differ- 



SINGULAR AND PLURAL. 21 

cnce of form do you observe in each case ? As regards the number de- 
noted, what is the difference of meaning ? 

To make the word orange mean more than one orange, what must we 
append to it ? What does the letter s, appended to the word orange, make 
it mean ? Would it be right to say tivo orange ? What should we say ? 

Give the words that mean more than one broom ; more than one pine- 
apple, chair, carpet, mug, alligator. What is appended in each case ? 

A noun that denotes but one is said to be in the sin- 
gular number, or Singular. A noun that denotes more 
than one is Plural. 

The plural of most nouns is formed by appending s* 

Proper nouns sometimes take s, to form the plural, 
when more than one having the same proper name are 
referred to; as, the Browns, the two Catos, the four 
Georges. 

Exercise* — Turn to the second paragraph of the story in Les- 
son XIII. Change each common noun, so as to make it plural if it 
is singular, and singular if it is plural. 

at 

LESSON XVI. 

Append s to the word torch (torchs), and try to pronounce it. Will the 
sound of 5 combine in the same syllable with that of ch in torch ? Try the 
same thing with the word lash, guess, fox, waltz. 

Some nouns end with a sound, with which the sound 
of s will not combine in the same syllable. In the plural, 
these nouns take es, forming an additional syllable ; as, 

One Two or more One Txco or more 

Stitch, stitch-^. Kiss, kiss-es. 

Dish, dish-^s. Box, box-^s. 

Lens, lens-^s. Waltz, w&ltz-es. 

Most nouns ending in 0, % and u, also take es, to form 
the plural : as, cargo, cargoes; alkali, alkalis; gnu, gnu^s. 



22 FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 

Words ending in y not preceded by a, e, or o, form 
their plural by changing final y into ies ; as, cry, (tries ; 
colloquy, colloquys. 

EXERCISE. 

Copy the following sentences. Underline the plural nouns not 
formed oy appending s to the singular ; spell ths corresponding sin- 
gular* and tell hoic the plural is formed : — 

1. Torches were placed in the porches of the churches, to light 
the heroes as they entered. 2. Even in cities, mosquitoes and flies 
are sometimes troublesome. 3. The solos were well sung by the 
ladies, and the echoes were distinctly heard in the boxes. 4. 
The gases from these volcanoes -are hurtful. 5. Volumes of dif- 
ferent size are distinguished as folios, quartos, octavos,t and duo- 
decimos. 

G. Cadies and rabbies followed by twos, arm in arm. 7. There 
were no dishes to serve the potatoes in. 8. Hippopotamuses, rhi- 
noceroses, and gnues, are found in Africa. 9. Negroes and mulat- 
toes are numerous in the West Indies. 10. Many spell moneys, 
monkeys, chimneys^ and valleys, wrong.J 11. One cameo; two 
cameos; three pianos. 12. Halos are circles of light; cantos are 
divisions of a poem ; mementos are memorials, or souvenirs. 



LESSON XVII. 

Leaf, leaves. Life, lives. 

How many does the word leaf denote ? The word leaves ? In what 
number is leaf? In what number is leaves ? Should we say one life or one 
lives ? Two life or two lives ? What is the plural of life ? What is the 
singular- of lives ? How do leaf and life form the plural ? 

Most nouns ending in f and fe form their plural by 

* If the pupil is at a loss for the singular, a Dictionary will assist him. 
t What point is used after each of the last three words ? Why ? 
X The singular being money, monkey, chimney, valley, why is not the plural mon- 
ies, monkies, chimnies, vallies f 



IRREGULAR PLURALS. 23 

changing/* or fe into ves: as, beef, beeves; elf, elves; 
icife, wives. 

Some nouns form their plural quite irregularly : as, 
man, men; child, children; ox, oxen; mouse, mice; 
goose, geese ; tooth, teeth. 

Some nouns have two plural forms with different 
meanings. Thus penny makes pennies when distinct 
coins are referred to, but pence when a sum of money is 
meant. So we speak of the brothers of a family, but the 
brethren of a society — both words the plural of brother. 

Some nouns are the same in the plural as in the sin- 
gular : one deer, five deer ; a sheep, fifty sheep. 

To form the plural of a figure, letter, or sign, we ap- 
pend this mark ( ' ), called the Apostrophe, and s ; as, The 
printer needs some 5's, Vs, and +'<- 9 . 

EXERCISE. 

Copy the following sentences. Underline the plural nouns, spell 
the corresponding singular, and tell how the plural is formed from 
the singular : — 

1. Some thieves have carried off the best sheaves of wheat and 
two well-grown calves. 2. Men, women, and children, trembled as 
the cannon were fired. 3. Our sportsmen have brought back five 
bass, three salmon, and two brace of grouse. 4. One mouse will do 
less mischief than five mice. 5. Oxen have teeth, but geese have 
bills. 6. Twenty sail have put into port to procure new sails. 

7. How many peas are in a pod ? How many bushels of pease 
will a bin four feet square and one foot high hold ? 8. My broth- 
ers have all joined the United Brethren. 9. Brethren and chiefs, 
there are wolves in the fold. 10. Twenty head of cattle passed, and 
all the children turned their heads to look at them. 11. Boys, cut 
those loaves on the shelves into halves, with the knives I sharpened 
for you. 12. Dot your i's, cross your t's, and form your 7's better. 
13. Hysterics is worse than the measles. 



24 



PLURAL OF COMPOUND NOUNS. 



LESSON XVIII. 



Gentleman, 

Wisdom-tooth, 

Father-in-law, 

Man-child, 

Piano-forte, 

Spoonful, 



gentlemen. 

wisdom-teeth. 

fathers-in-law. 

men-children. 

piano-fortes. 

spoonfuls. 



German, 

Tooth-brush, 

Step-father, 

Woman-servant, 

Jack-a-lantern, 

Miss Ray, 



Germans. 

tooth-brushes. 

step-fathers. 

women-servants. 

jack-a-lanterns. 

the Misses Rav. 



Look at the above examples. How do compounds of 
the word man (like gentleman) form the plural ? How 
do other words ending in man (like German) form the 
plural ? 

When the word tooth stands last in a compound (as in 
eye-tooth), which part of the compound takes the plural 
form ? When it stands first (as in tooth-powder), which 
takes the plural form ? 

Which part of the compound takes the plural form, 
in such compound nouns as father-in-law, step-father? 
In such words as spoonful, handful? In man-child, 
man-servant, ivoman-servant ? 

Write a sentence containing the plural of piano forte ; 
write one containing the plural of steam-engine. 

If we wish to name more than one Miss Ray, what 
should we say? More than one Master Picket? More 
than one Mrs. Fanshaw? The Mrs. Fanshaw. More 
than one Mr. Strong ? The Messrs. Strong. 

Some nouns have no plural, as gold. Some nouns 
have no singular ; as, scissors, ashes, clothes. 



EXERCISE. 



Copy the following sentences. Give the singular of each plural 
noun, and the plural of each singular noun : — 

1. Mothers-in-law are different things from step mothers. 2. 
Children often suffer from headaches and toothaches. 3. The 



» 



EXERCISES IN FORMING PLURALS. 25 

Misses Green sent five basketful s of oranges, to be distributed 
among their men-servants and maid-servants. 4. Galileos and 
Newtons are not produced every day. 5. The Turcomans are 
Mussulmans, but the Chinese are not. 6. Some of the best piano- 
fortes in the world are manufactured in Xew York. 7. No news 
is good news. 8. The policemen and firemen were trying to find 
a boatman with a club-foot. 9. I saw the Messrs. Stone, the Mas- 
ters Young, and Mrs. Clark. 

Write four sentences expressing statements, containing respective- 
ly, 1. The plural of man and woman. 2. The singular of oxen and 
horses. 3. The plural of rat and mouse. 4. The singular of brethren. 

Write four sentences expressing questions, containing respective- 
ly, 1. The plural of goose. 2. The plural of cupful. 3. The plural 
of brother-in-law. 4. The singular of halves. 

Write two sentences expressing exclamations, containing respec- 
tively, 1. The singular of hoofs. 2. The plural of monkey. 

Write two sentences expressing commands, containing respec- 
tively, 1. The plural of thief 2. The singular of wives. 

—-$$ 

LESSON XIX. 

Some English words of foreign origin retain their for- 
eign plurals, changing us to t, is to es, and am or on to 
a; as, 

Alumnus, alumni. Animalculwra, animalcuk. 

Crist*, crises. Phenomena, phenomena. 

Some words of foreign origin take both the foreign 

and a regular English plural ; as, 

Beau, beaux or beaus. 
Cherub, cherubim or cherubs. 

EXERCISE. 

In the following sentences, give the plural of each singular 
noun, and the singular of each plural noun: — 1. In traversing 
Sahara, caravans halt in the oases, where they find water and 
2 



26 EXERCISES ON PLURALS. 

shade. 2. Parentheses do not generally add to the force of sen- 
tences. 3. In the gymnasium are a fine herbarium and several 
aquaria. 4. The effluvia of great cities are noxious. 5. We have 
few data from which to explain these singular phenomena. 6. 
Cherubim and seraphim are plural forms derived from the Hebrew. 

Correct errors: — 1. Buffalos and deers still abound in our west- 
ern territorys. 2. Here are twelve pence, to pay for three handsful 
of seed. 3. Daughter-in-laws and mother-in-laws do not always 
agree. 4. The two Mr. Blacks are half-brothers of the Misses 
Careys. 5, I shall keep these mottos as mementoes of my first 
evening in Buffalo. 6. The sheafs of grain have all been taken in, 
and the leafs are beginning to fall. 

Write the plural of arch; monarch; niche; topaz; reply; 
gulf; bread-knife; alley; peach; tooth-pick; gooseberry. 

Write four sentences expressing questions, containing respectively 
the following nouns in the singular: 1. Mice. 2. Cuckoos. 3. 
Moneys. 4. Clothes-brushes. 



LESSON XX. 

An egg, one egg : two eggs, three eggs, four eggs, etc. 
A rat, one rat : two rats, three rats, four rats, etc. 
A one-dollar bill ; a two-dollar bill ; a ten-foot pole. 

Write the expressions given above. 

Is egg singular or plural ? Eggs ? In what number 
is rat? Bats? How many does an imply {an egg)? 
Should we say an onion or an onions ? Must a noun 
with which an is used, be in the singular or plural ? 

How many does a imply ? Must a noun with which 
a is used, be in the singular or plural ? Should we say a 
mouse or a mice ? What other form is there for an ? 

With two, three, and other words expressing numbers 
greater than one, must a noun be used in the singular or 
plural ? Should we say two fly or two flies? 



SINGULAR AND PLURAL, WHEN USED. 27 

Should we say a two-dollar Mil or a two-dollars hill ? 
A twelve-inch rule or a twelve-inches rule ? 

When a word expressing number is connected with 
its noun by a little mark (-) called a Hyphen, so as to 
form one word, the noun does not take the plural form. 
We say, a two-horse wagon, not a two-horses wagon. 

EXERCISE. 

Write the following, repeating the noun in the proper number 
where the dash occurs : One axis ; two — . A beau ; one — ; three 
— . Several heroes ; a — . Four deer ; a — ; three — . An ox ; 
a hundred — . These phenomena ; a wonderful — . Seraphim ; 
two — ; a — . Memoranda; a — . A sheep; twenty — . A sister- 
in-law ; many — . The baby ; the two — . 

Write six sentences expressing statements and containing respec- 
tively the following ; do not forget the hyphen. 1. A four-story 
house. 2. A five-mile walk. 3. Two-acre lots. 4. A three- 
minute horse. 5. A four-year-old colt. 6. Dull twenty-page 
pamphlets. 

Express the following in three words each : — A barn that has two 
stories (a two-story barn). A rule two feet long. Tender chickens 
weighing four pounds each. A vial that will hold three ounces. 
Light wagons for one horse. A piece worth five cents. A bond 
for a thousand dollars. 



LESSON XXI. 

An, or a, implies how many, and is used with nouns in 
what number ? Is it right to say a ant, an dog ? What 
May an or a be used indiscriminately ? 

Whether an or a is to be used, de- 
pends on the sound with which the fol- 
lowing word commences. Look at the 
examples on the left. 



should 


we say ? 


An ape. 


A boy. 


An inn. 


A fan. 


An egg. 


A cat. 


An oar. 


A rat. 


An urn. 


A unit. 


An heir. 


A hair. 



28 USE OF AN AND A. 

An is used before words commencing with a and i 9 and 
most words commencing with e, o, u, and h not sounded. 
A is used before all other words. 

A must also be used when the following word com- 
mences with the sound of u in unit ; as, a unit, a ewe, a 
eulogy, a humor. 

A must be used before one ; as, a one-horse wagon. 

A must be used before words commencing with h 
sounded ; as, a hat*, a hen. 

EXERCISE. 

Write sentences expressing questions, containing the following : — 
An honest man. A one-sided story. A useful woman. An heir. 
A universal history. A yew-tree. An idiot. 

Supply an or a where the dash occurs: 1. — hour ago, — hur- 
ricane passed over your father's barn, killing — heifer, — old cow, 
and — yoke of oxen. 2. — cup of coffee is often — great help to 

— traveller. 3. — good head of hair is something of — wonder 
nowadays. 4. — host of doubts; — indispensable article ; many 

— one ; — university education; — honorable position; — happy 
family; — iron will and — inflexible purpose; — humane dis- 
position. 

Change to the singular with an or a preceding : — Uncles and 
aunts {an uncle and an aunt); parasols and umbrellas; eulogies; 
courts-martial ; oaks and ash-trees ; halos ; mottoes ; humorous 
stories; asylums and hospitals; European tourists; united efforts; 
hasty glances ; units, tens, hundreds ; dwarfs. 

ss 

LESSON XXII. 

In Lesson XX., the Hyphen is spoken of as connecting two words in 
one compound word ; as, a four-horse stage. Make a hyphen. How does 
it differ in appearance from the dash ? For what has the dash been used ? 

In compounds that are much used, the hyphen is 
dropped; as, railroad, fireman (not rail-road, fire-man). 



DIVIDING WORDS INTO SYLLABLES. 29 

When a written word is divided into its syllables, the 
hyphen is used to connect them ; as, mo-tion. 

The ear will generally guide us correctly in dividing 
a word into its syllables : thus, lem-on, not le-mon ; vi- 
cious, not vi-ci-ous. 

Remember that the terminations sion, tion (pro- 
nounced shim), cial, tial (shal), cious, tiotjs (shits), GEOUS 
(Jus), and others pronounced with one impulse of the 
voice, form but one syllable; as, temp-ta-faVm, cou-ra- 
geous. 

When a word, for want of sufficient space to get in 
the whole, has to be divided at the end of a line, the 
hyphen is placed after a complete syllable, and the rest 
of the word is carried to the next line. Show where the 
hyphen is thus used on page 28. Remember thus to use 
the hyphen in your compositions. 

Questions. — How many uses have we found for the hyphen ? What 
are they ? Where is the period used ? The interrogation-point ? The ex- 
clamation-point ? What four things do sentences express ? 

What is a noun ? How does a proper noun differ from a common noun, 
in the idea expressed ? How in appearance, when printed ? Which do you 
more frequently meet with in sentences ? 

What is the effect of appending 5 to most nouns ? Is every noun that 
ends in s plural ? Mention one that is not ; how can it be made plural ? 
How is the plural of a sign or character formed ? 

Which was the original form, an or a 9 Why does an change to a be- 
fore certain words ? Should we say an hyphen or a hyphen ? Why ? 

EXERCISE. 

What Jcind of words are the following ?— Sun-stroke; work- 
table; sewing-machine; hand-cart; watch-tower; black-eyed; red- 
hot. Analyze these compounds into the simple words that compose 
them. Write a sentence containing each compound. 

Form ten compounds that you know to be in common use, oy unit- 
ing two of the following tcords :— W ater ; house; light; wood; rose; 



30 



NOUNS DISTINGUISHED AS 



boat; bird; night; dog. What is the difference between a house- 
dog and a dog-house ? Where is the noun that expresses the leading 
idea generally placed in the compound ? 

Analyze the following words into their syllables, connecting the, 
syllables with the hyphen : — Work-women ; discrimination ; self- 
deceiving ; precious ; indefatigable ; peaceable ; pretension ; um- 
brageous; presidential; discovery; sunset; steamboat; moonlight. 
Why is there no hyphen in the last three words f 

se 



Males. 


Females. 


Count, 


countess. 


Actor, 


actress. 


Executor, 


executrix. 


Hero, 


heroine. 


Julius, 


Julia. 


He-goat, 


she-goat. 


Nephew, 


niece. 


Landlord, 


landlady. 



LESSON XXIII. 

Some nouns are the names of liv- 
ing things ; others, of things without 
life {give examples). 

Some living things have different 
names for the male and the female. 
Look at the two columns of words 
on the left ; which contains the names 
of males ? Which, of females ? 

The names of males are said to be in the masculine 
gender, or Masculine ; those of females, in the feminine 
gender, or Feminine. 

Some masculine nouns are made feminine by adding 
or changing a termination. Give three examples from 
the above lists. The terminations ess, ix, ine, and a, are 
the most common ones in feminine nouns. 

In some cases, the difference of gender is indicated 
by prefixing a word ; as, m<m-servant, maidservant. Or 
by the use of w T ords entirely different ; as, uncle, aunt. 
Select an example of each from the above lists. 

Sometimes a noun applicable to either sex has a dis- 
tinct feminine form ; as, lion, lioness. 



MASCULINE AND FEMININE. 31 

EXERCISE. 

Tell which word in the folloicing pairs is masculine, which is 
feminine, and which is applicable to either sex: — Emperor, em- 
press ; king, queen ; princess, prince ; tiger, tigress ; administratrix, 
administrator; duchess, duke; czarina, czar; sultan, sultana; bear, 
she-bear; huntress, hunter; sparrow, cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow; 
Cornelius, Cornelia; Theodora, Theodore ; widow, widower. 

Tell which feminities in the above are distinguished by a termina- 
tion, and which by a prefixed word. Prefix an or a (as may be proper) 
to the masculine common nouns ; write the plural of the fcminines. 

Write the masculine : — Actress ; mistress ; hostess ; goddess ; 
Josephine. Write the feminine : — Jew ; priest ; shepherd ; Augus- 
tus; hero; Irishman; Louis. 

Complete the following : — 1. The first husband of Mary, (king or 
queen fy of Scots, was (Frances or Francis?), afterward (king or 
queen t) of France. 2. The duke was a great (patron or patroness t) 
of letters. 3. Peter the Great having died, Catharine was left a 
(widow or widower t) and became (emperor or empress t) of Bussia. 

§€ 

LESSON XXIV. 

1. Mary met Charles. 

2. Charles met Mary. 

3. Mary's sister met Charles's brother. 

The leading word in a sentence, denoting that about 
which something is affirmed, is called the Subject. 

In Sentence 1 above, we affirm that Mary met some one ; 
Mary is the Subject, Charles denotes the Object met. 

In Sentence 2, we affirm that Charles met some one; 
Charles is the Subject, Mary denotes the Object met. 

Observe that whether Mary denotes the subject or the 
object, it is still Mary. Observe that whether Charles 
denotes the subject or the object, it is still Charles. 



32 POSSESSIVE FORM OF NOUNS. 

In Sentence 3, we speak of Mary's sister and Charles's 
brother. The form of the proper nouns is now changed. 
When possession is to be denoted, Mary becomes Mary's, 
and Charles becomes Charles's. We add the apostrophe 

and s ('s). 

For what, on page 23, did we find 5 s used ? For what is it here used ? 
Select the nouns in Sentence 3 above. Which is the subject ? Which is 
the object ? Which denote possession? Make the nouns sister and brother 
denote possession. 

Add 's to a singular noun, to make it denote possession* 



THE WINGED FISHERMAN. 

The osprey, or fish-hawk, feeds its young with fish, which it 
catches in lakes or rivers. Flying a little way above the water, as 
soon as its keen eye discerns a fish near the surface, the watchful 
bird closes its wings, swoops down upon the water, and seldom 
misses its prey. Securing its victim in its talons, the winged fish- 
erman then soars away to his distant nest, where the little birds 
await their supper with extended bills and fluttering pinions. 



POSSESSIVE FORM OF NOUNS. 33 

Sometimes, however, the birdlets are robbed of their repast. 
Some great eagle, who is too lazy to fish for himself, spies the nice 
fat chub or perch in the osprey's claws, pounces down upon it, and 
carries off the prize. 

The picture illustrates this. The parent-bird is rising from the 
water with dripping feathers, having made a fine capture. Its nest 
is on a high rock in the lake, and there you see the young ones all 
ready for the titbit. But the robber is coming. Will the osprey 
fight, or will he give up the fish ? Is there much chance that the 
little birds will get their supper? Perhaps the eagle will eat them 
next. 

Exercise. — In the above sentences, select the nouns that are sub' 
jects. Which noun in the second paragraph denotes possession t 

Write the above in your own language. (Describe the lake and 
the nest. How do you suppose the osprey and the young birds 
felt?) 

§e — - 

LESSON XXV. 

1. A child's shoes ; children's shoes. 

2. A man's clothes ; men's clothes. 

3. An ox's horns ; oxen's horns. 

4. The minister's sons ; the ministers' sons. 

5. The lady's gloves ; the ladies' gloves. 

Write the above expressions as in the book. Read them in columns. 

How is each singular noun in the 1st column made to denote posses- 
sion ? Make the change in each {child, child's ; man, man's ; etc.). Which 
of the plural nouns in the 2d column are made to denote possession in the 
same way — by adding 's ? Make the change in each (children, children'' s ; 
men, men's; oxen, oxen's). How are the last two {ministers, ministers' 1 ; 
ladies, ladies'*) made to denote possession ? Do you notice any difference 
of form between those plural nouns that take *s and those that take 9 alone ? 

To indicate possession, add 9 s to singular nouns, and 
plural nouns not ending in s; add the apostrophe alone to 
plural nouns ending in s* 



34 USE OF POSSESSIVE FORMS. 

Of is often used before both singular and plural nouns, 
to denote possession ; as, the horns of an ox (equivalent 
to an ox's ho?ms), the sons of the ministers (the ministers' 
sons). 

But it is not always right thus to use of. We say 
men's clothes for sale, — not the clothes of men for sale. 

On the other hand, in some cases, particularly of things 
without life, of must be used instead of 's. Thus we say, 
the walls of the house, not the house's walls ; the orna- 
ments of the mantelpiece, not the mantelpiece's ornaments. 

EXERCISE. 

Which of the following denote one, and which more than one? 
Which denote possession f For those that denote possession, give equiv- 
alents with of. — Dromedary's ; dromedaries ; dromedaries' ; ser- 
vants ; servants' ; mice's ; mouse's ; nephew ; nephews ; Julius's ; 
Julia's; geese; geese's; goose's; washerwoman; washerwomen's; 
sister-in-law's; sisters-in-law's; torches'; torch's. 

Give doth the singular and plural form denoting possession : — 
Frenchman (Frenchman's, Frenchmen's) ; dog ; deer ; hostler ; wait- 
ress ; German ; belle ; marquis ; marchioness ; thief ; dwarf ; 
cuckoo; man-child. 

Give equivalent expressions: — The president's friends (the friends 
of the president) ; the sword of a hero (a herd's sword) ; freedom's 
voice ; the farmer's cattle ; the heat of the sun ; a fireman's cap ; 
the firemen's caps ; the fox's brush ; a fox's brush ; the teeth of the 
baby ; the flight of the eagle. 



LESSON XXVI. 

The nieces of the farmer's wife ; 

not, The nieces of the wife of the farmer, 
or, The farmer's wife's nieces. 

Avoid unpleasant repetitions of 's or o£ 



USE OF POSSESSIVE FORMS. 35 

The prophet Jeremiah's lamentations ; 

not, The prophet's Jeremiah's lamentations. 
Brown and Smith, the painters', store, 

or, The store of Brown and Smith, the painters ; 

not, Brown and Smith's, the painters', store. 

The sign of possession is appended only to the latter 
of two nouns standing together (or in apposition, as it is 
called), one to explain the other. 

William and Mary's reign. But one reign is referred to, William and 
Mary having reigned jointly. Both proper nouns denote possession, but the 
latter alone takes 's. 

The rose's and the violefs odor are quite different Two odors are re- 
ferred to, the rose and the violet having each its own ; and each noun de- 
noting possession takes '5. 

When joint possession is denoted, the latter of two or 
more connected nouns alone takes the sign ; w r hen sepa- 
rate possession is denoted, each takes it. 

How many nurses are denoted, if we say Frank's, Florence^, and Grace's 
nurse? How many, if we say Frank, Florence, and Grace's nurse? 

EXERCISE. 

Complete by inserting a noun denoting possession; — 1. The — 
song is heard in the fields. 2. At Hay, the — , you can buy — 
boots, — gaiters, and — slippers. 3. Many painters have repre- 
sented Daniel in the — den. 4. Goose-eggs are larger than — 
— eggs or — eggs. 5. No one believes a — story. 6. — bonnets; 
the — inarch; our — house; — clothes; the — howl; a good — 
prayers ; your — daughter ; — schools. 

Correct errors: — 1. Have you ever seen Henry's son's wife's 
father? 2. In William's the Conqueror's reign, many Normans 
found their way to England. 3. The house of the daughter of the 
friend of my uncle. 4. Davids and Jonathan's friendship has passed 
into a proverb. 5. Call at Allen's, the blacksmith's, as you pass. 
6. Ohio and Iowa's sons were both there. 7. Golds specific grav- 
ity exceeds silver's. 8. The parlor's occupant; the house's roof; 
womens' rights^ the collars of ladies; St. Pauls Church; this die- 



36 A LITTLE STORY. 

tionary's author; the babie's mother; Charles' knife; these pota- 
toes' owner ; that office's furniture. 9. Coopers and Scotts novels 
can be procured at Riley and Grays. {Express so as to indicate, 1. 
That Biley and Qray are 'partners, 2. That they have separate 
stores.) 

Write six sentences containing the following ; the engraving on 
page 32 will suggest ideas: — 1. The fish-hawk's talons. 2. The 
eagle's flight. 3. The osprey's nest. 4. The little birds' wings. 
5. The surface of the lake. 6. Drops of water. 

§# 

LESSON XXVII. 

MARY'S SAUCE. 

"I do not like my soup; please give me some that is better," 
said little Mary, one day at dinner. 

" You shall have some for your supper that will please you bet- 
ter," answered Mr. Gray, her father. 

Then he went out into the field to dig potatoes, and took his 
daughter with him. They worked with all their might till sunset, 
hoeing the potatoes out of the ground and gathering them in heaps. 
At dark they came in, tired and hungry. 

The good mother prepared the supper, and set before Mary the 
same soup she had found fault with at dinner. 

"Ah ! this is good soup ; I like this," said Mary. "Please give 
me some more." 

The mother laughed, and, as she gave her little girl another 
plateful, kissed her and said, " It is the same soup you had ; but 
now you are eating it with a sauce that makes it taste good." 

What was the sauce ? 

Write the story given above, just as it is printed, and 
refer to it in answering the following questions : — 

How many paragraphs are there in this story ? 

In the 1st paragraph, Mary is represented as saying 
certain words. These words are enclosed between two 
pair of marks ( " " ), standing a little above the line. 



Q UOTA TION-POINTS. 37 

Imitate these marks on the black-board. The lirst 
two look like commas turned upside down, or inverted ; 
the last two look just like w^hat? These are called 
Quotation-points. 

In which paragraph do you next see quotation-points used ? What are 
they used to enclose there ? Are quotation-points used in the 3d para- 
graph ? In the 4th paragraph ? Why not ? 

Why are quotation -points used in the 5th paragraph ? How many 
times are they used in this paragraph ? What Mary said, is broken into 
two parts. Give the first part ; give the second part. Said Mary is thrown 
in between the two parts, and the quotation-points are so placed as to ex- 
clude said Mary from what she said. 

In the next paragraph, what are quotation-points used to enclose ? 
Why are there no quotation-points in the last paragraph ? 

Had the substance only, and not the exact words, been 
given, we should not have used quotation-points. Thus, 
Mary, pushed bach her plate, and said she did not like 
her soup — no quotation-points. 

When we introduce, or quote, the words of another, 
they should be enclosed in quotation-points ; as, Thomson 
speaks of war as " only splendid murder" . 

Quotation-points are used to enclose words quoted, or 
represented as spoken in stories. 

In stories, different persons are ofteix represented as 
speaking. When one finishes and another commences, 
we begin a new paragraph. Do you find it so in the 
story on page 36 ? 

Exercise. — Point out each sentence in the story. With what 
kind of letter does each begin? Why do Mary and Mr. Gray begin 
with capitals? In which sentence is a question asked? What 
mark stands at the end of this sentence ? What does Mr. stand 
for ? Why is the period used after Mr ? Which noun in the sec- 
ond paragraph explains, or is in apposition with, another ? 

Write the story in your own language. 



38 PRONOUNS. 

LESSON XXVIII. 

Look again at the story on page 36. 

Mary, speaking of herself, does not say, " Mary does 
not like Mary's soup ; give Mary — " but " I do not like 
my soup ; give me" What little words does she use in 
stead of her own name ? These little words are used/or 
nouns, and are called Pronouns (pro means for). 

In the 2d paragraph, when Mr. Gray speaks to Mary, he does not say, 
" Mary shall have some for Mary's supper that will please Mary better." 
What word does he use in stead of Mary ? What does he use in stead of 
Mary's ? What are you and your ? Why does he use you and your ? 

In the 1st sentence of the 3d paragraph, three pronouns are used for 
Mr. Gray's name ; what are they ? For what words is each used ? 

A person speaking of himself may use the pronouns 
I, my, mine, me / speaking of himself and another, we, 
our, ours, us. 

A person speaking to another may use the pronouns 
you, your, yours ; in solemn or poetical language, thou, 
thy, thine, thee. 

A person speaking of a male may use the pronouns 
he, his, him ; of a female, she, her, hers ; of a thing, it, 
its ; of more than one, they, their, theirs, them. 

A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 

A pronoun must be singular or plural, masculine or 
feminine, according as the noun is, for which it stands. 

Write the pronoun I with a capital* 

EXERCISE. 

Of the pronouns mentioned above, write in separate tables, 

1. All those that denote females only. 

2. All those that denote males only. 

3. All those that denote but one. 

4. All those that denote more than one. 



PRONOUNS. 39 

Underline such of the pronouns mentioned as occur in the story 
on page 36, and state what noun each stands for. 

Substitute Harry for Mary in the story, and show what changes 
would have to be made in the pronouns in consequence. 

Complete by inserting the proper pronoun: — 1. Father, we im- 
plore — to grant us — blessing. 2. Nature, — art ever beautiful 
with thy smiling face. 3. Catharine, have — prepared — lesson ? 
4. Richard has — faults, and Susan has — . 5. Every tub must 
stand on — own bottom. 



LESSON XXIX. 

I see myself. Robert and I see ourselves. 

Take care of thyself. ) mi n , 

r Take care of yourselves. 

Take care of yourself. ) 

He helped himself. { They helped themselves. 

She helped herself. ) 

The child hurt itself. Ida and Ben hurt themselves. 

Read the above. Here we have some longer pronouns 
ending in self, plural selves. 

Which of the pronouns in the above sentences denote one ? Which 
denote more than one ? Which denote females ? Which denote males ? 
Which may denote either ? What noun does each pronoun stand for ? 

When you use these pronouns, be sure to spell them 
right. Do not say theirselves, hisself, its self, etc. 



1. Morse, who invented the telegraph, was born in Massachusetts. 

2. The moon, which looks so bright, has no light of her own. 

3. The man and horse that were approaching, suddenly vanished. 

Here we have three new pronouns, who, which, and 
that, used to introduce additional statements into the 
sentences. 

What does who stand for ? What statement does it introduce ? What 
does which stand for ? What statement does it introduce ? What does 
that stand for ? What statement does it introduce ? 



40 PRONOUNS. 

Who is applied to persons, Which to inferior animals 
or things, That to persons, animals, or things. 

Try whether which or that may be used in stead of who, in Sentence 1. 
Try whether who or that may be used in stead of which in Sentence 2. Try 
whether who or which may be used in stead of that in Sentence 3. 

In Sentence 1, can the statement introduced by who be left out without 
marring the sense — Morse was born in Massachusetts? It can, and the 
statement is set off with a comma on each side. 

In Sentence 2, can the statement introduced by which be left out with- 
out marring the sense ? Try it ; where is the comma used in this sentence ? 

In Sentence 3, can the statement introduced by that be left out without 
injury to the meaning intended to be conveyed — the man and horse suddenly 
vanished? It can not, for we would not know what man and horse were 
meant. In this case no comma is required. 

Set off with the comma statements introduced by who, 
which, and that, if they can be left out without marring 
the sense ; otherwise not. 

EXEKCISE. 

Correct errors: — 1. Let those, who stand, beware lest they fall. 
2. There is no man what sinneth not. 3. The vultures, that live 
among the Alps, often carry off lambs and kids. 4. Even the ox 
who is among the most patient of animals can be enraged. 5. That 
child can amuse its self. 6. Men which make the laws should not 
break the laws. 7. Some poor men pride their selves on their pov- 
erty. 8. Girls, look out for yourself, i say. 9. Cleopatra killed 
her self by the bite of an asp. 10. We are indebted to Du Chaillu 
who has travelled much in the interior of Africa for several inter- 
esting works. 

Combine the sentences given under each number into one, connect- 
ing them with a pronoun, and using the comma when necessary. 
Thus: — 1. General Harrison, who defeated the Indians at Tippe- 
canoe, was afterward made president. 

1. General Harrison defeated the Indians at Tippecanoe. Gen- 
eral Harrison was afterward made president. 2. Alexander con- 
quered others. Alexander could not conquer himself. 3. Japan 
long avoided intercourse with foreigners. Japan is now rapidly 
introducing the improvements of other countries. 4. Men do evil ; 



WHO, WHICH, THAT, WHAT. 41 

this evil lives after them. (The evil that men do, etc.) 5. Men do 
good; this good is often buried with their bones. 6. Homer wrote 
the greatest of epics. Homer was poor. Homer was blind. 7. The 
Nile overflows its banks every year. The Nile spreads a rich de- 
posit over the country. The Nile makes Egypt fertile. 

§# 

LESSON XXX. 

Write Sentences 1, 2, 3, on page 39. Name the pronoun in Sentence 1. 
What noun does who stand for, or relate to f Observe that who, with the 
statement it introduces, immediately follows its noun Morse. Try placing 
it in any other position in the sentence — for instance, Morse was born in 
Massachusetts, who invented the telegraph — would this be right ? 

Name the first pronoun in Sentence 2. What noun does which relate to ? 
Observe that which, with the statement it introduces, immediately follows 
its noun moon. Try placing it, with its statement, in any other position — 
at the end of the sentence, for instance ; would the sense be preserved ? 

Name the pronoun in Sentence 3. What noun does that relate to ? 
Observe that the pronoun that, with the statement it introduces, imme- 
diately follows the nouns to which it relates. Would it be right to place 
it in any other position ? Try. 

Who, which, and that, with the statements they intro- 
duce, should be placed as near as possible to the nouns to 
which they relate. 

Who whispered ? Which of you whispered ? Wliat did you whisper ? 
I do not know who whispered. Find out which of the boys whispered. 
He will not tell what he whispered. 

The pronouns who, which, and what, are often used 
at the commencement of sentences in asking questions. 
Eepeat the three sentences given above, in which they 
are so used. What mark follows each sentence ? 

V ho, which, and what, are also used, in answering 
questions and otherwise, indefinitely — that is, without 
relating to any particular noun. 

Repeat the three sentences given above, in which they are so used. 



42 WHO, WHICH, THAT, WHAT. 

Try to find what noun who relates to, in the sentence / do not know who 
whispered. 

Thus used, which may be applied to persons, inferior 
animals, or things ; as, which of the boys, which of the 
dogs, which of the pens. 

EXERCISE. 

Write three sentences in which questions are aslced respectively 
with who, which, and what. 

Write a sentence containing who used indefinitely. 

Write three sentences containing which used indefinitely — of a 
person — of an inferior animal — of a thing. 

Write a sentence containing what used indefinitely. 

Introduce the words in italics in the proper place, with commas 
if needed: — 1. Out of jet are made handsome brooches {which is a 
hind of coal). 2. Every man ought to be thankful to Roger Bacon 
(that uses spectacles) (who invented them). 3. The climate of Florida 
is delightful in the winter months (which has become a popular re- 
sort of invalids). 

4. Have you not read that Manhattan Island was discovered by- 
Henry Hudson (on which the city of New York is situated) f 5. 
Viewed through the microscope, hairs are found to be hollow 
tubes, and our bodies to be covered with minute scales (which 
enables us to see very small objects). 6. The Spaniards say that 
a lie has short legs (who have some capital proverbs in their lan- 
guage). 

Correct errors in arrangement, etc.: — 1. Eivers sometimes en- 
tirely dry up in summer, that are roaring torrents in spring. - 2. 
What did people do before soap was invented, which is now so 
common ? 3. How i pity the poor man on such an inclement night, 
who has no home to go to! 4. Brutus conspired against Caesar, 
who was an ardent lover of liberty. (Make it appear that Brutus 
was the lover of liberty.) 5. (Introduce quotation-points.) Who 
knocked? asked the terrified woman, hardly knowing what she 
said. If you open the door, you will find out who knocked, an- 
swered a gruff voice. 



THE USE OF PRONOUNS ILLUSTRATED. 43 

LESSON XXXI. 

C Who } C Whoever, whosoever, (any one who). 

From < Which > come ■< Whichever, whichsoever, (the one that). 
( What J ( Whatever, whatsoever, (any thing that). 

Whosoever committeth sin is the servant of siD. • 

That is, Any one who committeth sin, etc. 
You may have whichever is the longer. 

That is, You may have the one that is the longer. 
I believe whatever you say. 

That is, I believe any thing that you say. 
Are whoever, whichever, and whatever, used to ask questions with ? Are 
they used indefinitely ? To what words is each of them equivalent ? Give 
the longer form for each. From what simpler pronouns are they formed ? 

This is good ; that is bad. The former advanced ; the latter 
retreated. Both are the same to me. Question each and every of 
them. I will have either; I will reject neither. One comes; an- 
other goes; none stay. Some float; others sink; all swim. Any 
may depart. Such as wish, may go. 

Above occur a number of words that are not names, 
or nouns, but represent nouns; hence they are pronouns. 

As the above sentences are dictated, write them on 
the black-board ; underline the pronouns. With what kind 
of letter does each sentence begin ? What follows each ? 

This is good ; these are good. — Singular, this; Plural, these. 
That is bad; those are bad. — Singular, that; Plural, those. 
Each tree ; every leaf. — Each and every are Singular. 

John and James hurt each other. 

John, James, and Jacob, hurt one another. 

Either of the two ; any (or any one) of the three. 

Neither of the two ; none (or no one) of the party. 
Use each other, either, and neither, when two are 
spoken of. Use one another, any (or any one), and none 
(or no one), when more than two are spoken of. 



44 EXERCISES ON PRONOUNS. 

EXERCISE. 

Substitute one equivalent 'pronoun for the words in italics: — 1. 
Try to succeed in any thing that you undertake. 2. You are wel- 
come to the one that pleases you best. 3. Any one who is the slave 
of intemperance serves a hard master. 4. Any thing that is worth 
doing, is worth doing well. 5. Any one that does not admire the 
autumn tints of a New England forest, has no soul for the beautiful. 

Where a dash occurs, insert the proper pronoun : — 1. Here Santa 
Anna and General Taylor met; the — had the larger army, the — 
had the better men. 2. Which of the two will you take ; I will 
take — , for I like — . 3. "We should do — seems right, not mind- 
ing what — or — may say. 4. On hearing — , the passengers were 
appalled ; — wept, — prayed, — expected to be saved. 5. — were 
armed ; — had his deadly rifle. 6. Twins often entertain the 
strongest attachment to {each other or one another f) 

Correct errors: — 1. There is no getting along with those sort of 
men. 2. Will you lend me this scissors. 3. Men are too often en- 
vious of each other. 4. Each workman must see to their own tools. 
5. Here are twenty good ones ; take either you choose. 6. Beauti- 
ful women do not always admire each other. 

7. Neither of my three brothers is as tall as I. 8. What do you 
thii:k of these news. 9. True merit and modesty often accompany 
one another. 10. Every voter should examine into the question 
for themselves, and exercise their ow^n judgment. 11. The house 
has been finished this three months. 12. Carry out this ashes. 



LESSON XXXII. 

Review Lesson XXIV., page 31. 

1. Ida saw Ben. She saw him. 

2. Ben saw Ida. He saw her. 

3. Ben's sister saw Ida's brother. His sister saw her brother. 

Which of the above sentences contain nouns ? Which 
contain pronouns ? Referring to the corresponding sen- 



SUBJECTIVE AND OBJECTIVE FORMS. 45 

tences in the first column, tell what each pronoun in the 
second column stands for. 

A noun or pronoun may stand in one of three rela- 
tions to other words in the sentence : it may be the Sub- 
ject, it may be the Object, or it may denote Possession. 

Select the nouns that are subjects, in the sentences of the first column 
above. Select the corresponding pronouns, which are subjects, in the sec- 
ond column. Select the nouns that are objects, in the first column. Select 
the corresponding pronouns, which are objects, in the second column. Se- 
lect the nouns that denote possession, in the first column. Select the cor- 
responding pronouns, which denote possession, in the second column. 

In expressing which of these relations, is the form of the noun changed ? 
Do you find, in the above sentences, the forms of the pronouns he and she 
changed, to mark these different relations ? 

She being the subjective form, find the corresponding objective form 
used above. Find the corresponding possessive form. He being the sub- 
jective form, find the corresponding objective form used above. Find the 
corresponding possessive form. 

Some pronouns have distinct Subjective and Objective 
forms, which must not be interchanged* 

Subjective Forms.— I, Thou, He, She, We, They, Who. 
* Objective Forms. — me, thee, him, her, us, them, whom. 

Objective forms follow at, after, "before, between, by, 
for, from, in, into, of, over, to, with, without, and other 
words expressing relations of time, place, etc. ; as, Be- 
tween him and me (not he and I). 

Examples. — Write the sentences correctly, and of each pronoun 
state whether the subjective or objective form is used: — 

I (not me) laughed. — Charles and she (not her) will go. — Whom 
(not who) did you see? — "Who spoke? I (not me, for the meaning 
is I spoke). — Whom did he speak to? Me (not 7", for the meaning is 
He spoke to me). — Name whomever, or whomsoever, you choose 
(not whoever or whosoever) — We will give the prize to whoever 
(not whomever) deserves it. — It is he (not him). — None were hap- 
pier than I (not me). — Who so graceful as she (not her)? — He will 
do it for you and me (not 7). 



46 POSSESSIVE FORMS OF PRONOUNS. 

LESSON XXXIII. 

Some pronouns have distinct forms to denote posses- 
sion. And some have two possessive forms, one to be 
used with, and the other without, the name of the thing 
possessed. 

Possessive Forms.— My, mine; thy, thine; his; her, 
hers ; its ; our, ours ; your, yours ; their, theirs ; whose. 

Examples. — Select the pronouns in the possessive form, and of 
each state whether it is used with or without the name of the thing 



My friend ; a friend of mine. Thy heart; that heart of thine. 
His letters; some letters of his. Her sisters; two sisters of hers. 
Its beginning and its end. Our boy; this beloved boy of ours. 
Your houses ; houses of yours. Their property ; property of theirs. 
Wisdom, whose ways are pleasantness. 

Are any apostrophes used in these possessive forms ? 

EXERCISE. 

Correct errors of every kind, and insert quotation-points where 
needed: — 1. Time and me, king philip II.* of spain used to say, are 
a match for any two. 2. Can not me -and you row the boat across ! 
3. Is it me to whom you allude ? asked the sheriff. I will not say 
who i allude to, replied Dr Black ? 4. Let you and I start at once. 
5. Who do you think she was laughing at — Mary or he. 6. Them 
that win, may laugh. 7. The others, said Edward, had a better 
chance than us. 

Complete the sentences, and correct errors : — 1. It is (her or she?) 
that is causing the trouble. 2. Napoleon, who his Old Guard 
almost idolized, was familiarly called "the little corporal. 3. (My 
or mine f) friend, what has become of you. 4. Be it (my or mine f), 
cried the bold sergeant, to defend the flag." 5. None are so 
blind as those which will not see. 6. Let whomsoever will, come. 
7. Every parent is apt to think their own child faultless. 

* Always place a period after letters used thus to denote numbers. 



NAMES OF OBJECTS PERSONIFIED. 47 

LESSON XXXIV. 

Do not use hisn for his ; hem for hers ; 

oum for ours ; yourn for yours ; 

theirn for theirs ; who's for whose. 
These possessive forms do not take the apostrophe. 

Do not use this here, or this 'ere, for this ; 
these here, or these ''ere, for these ; 
that there, or that ''eve, for that ; 
those there, or those ''ere, for those ; 
them for those (not tliem maps, but those maps). 

M War flings his torch into the doomed hamlet ; Peace strews her bless- 
ings o'er the plain." 

Mention the two subjects in the above sentence. As commonly used, 
what kind of nouns are war and peace ? As here used, with what kind of 
letters do war and peace commence ? 

When represented as doing what only persons can do, 
or when spoken to as persons, things without life are said 
to be personified. War and peace are personified in the 
above sentence. 

The names of objects personified must •commence with 
capitals. 

In the above sentence, what pronoun is used, relating to War? Is his 
masculine or feminine? What pronoun is used, relating to Peace? Is her 
masculine or feminine ? 

Great, fierce, terrible objects are personified as males, 
and pronouns relating to them must be masculine. 

Gentle, delicate, beautiful objects are personified as 
females, and pronouns relating to them must be feminine. 

With objects personified use who, not which; as, 
u Smiling Spring, who scatters her sweet-scented blossoms 
in our path." 



48 OBJECTS PERSONIFIED. 

EXERCISE. 

Name the objects personified, and complete by inserting the proper 
pronouns: — 1. Consoling Faith points with — finger to the skies. 
2. Listen not to Pleasure, {which or who?) whispers — alluring tales 
only to deceive. 3. Kevenge, with — heart of flint, spares not — 
dearest friends. 4. Blind, indeed, is Justice; — eyes are always 
bandaged. 5. Stern and pitiless, Hate shoots — poisoned arrows. 

Write three sentences containing the Moon, Liberty, and War, 
personified. 

Correct errors: — 1. Here i and sorrow sit. 2. This land is 
neither your's, nor tbeir's, but ourn. 3. Pass them apples to Mr 
Banks. 4. Her's is a hope who's foundation is secure. 5. They 
whom he loves, he chastens. 6. Take that 'ere meal to the mill. 
7. Are this oats yourn. 8. I have been looking all day for this 
here knife. 9. I thought it was hisn, but found out it was hern. 



--£€>-- 



LESSON XXXV. 

On the opposite page we have a picture of a fountain. 
What kind of a fountain is it ? 

1. A large fountain. 6. A well-built fountain. 

2. A high fountain. 7. A light-colored fountain. 

3. A pretty fountain. 8. A valuable fountain. 

4. A handsome fountain. 9. One fountain ; this fountain. 

5. A marble fountain. 10. The only fountain. 

Select the words used above to describe the fountain, 
to tell about its size — appearance — material — construction 
— color — value. Select the words that limit the meaning 
of fountain. 

These words are not the names of things, nor do they 
stand for the names of things ; but they qualify or limit 
the meaning of the noun fountain. They belong to a 
new class of words, called Adjectives. 



ADJECTIVES. 



49 



An adjective may be joined to a pronoun, as well as 

a noun. Speaking of the fountain, we may say, It is 

large, it is pretty, it is well-huilt, etc. 

An Adjective is a word used to qualify or limit the 
meaning of a noun or pronoun* 




The Drinklng-Fountain. 

Name some of the objects in the picture ; these names are all what? 

Write all the adjectives you can think of, suitable to describe the street 
shown above (a wide street, a clean street, etc.). Write as many adjectives 
as you can, that will apply to the horse ; the dug ; the woman ; the old 
man ; the pigeons. All these words are what ? 

" From Scotland comes Scotch ale ; from Ireland, Irish linen." 

What adjectives do you find in the above sentence ? From what proper 

noun is Scotch derived ? Irish ? How do Scotch and Irish commence ? 
From Proper Nouns are derived Proper Adjectives, which 

must commence with capitals. 

There is a large class of adjectives that express number ; 
as, few, many, several, four, twenty-five, first, double. 
3 



50 PROPER ADJECTIVES.— COMPARISON. 

EXERCISE. 

Select the adjectives in the story on pages 32, 33. 

Write the proper nouns from which these proper adjectives 
come : — English ; Jewish ; Portuguese ; Welsh ; Washingtonian ; 
Norwegian ; Egyptian ; Scottish ; Peruvian ; Danish ; Sicilian ; 
Genoese ; Venetian. 

Form proper adjectives from South America ; Moses ; Brazil ; 
France; Persia; Napoleon; India; Asia; Alps; Europe; Mexico; 
Prussia; Britain; Austria; Canada. 

Join each of the proper adjectives just formed to an appropriate 
noun: as, South American countries; the Mosaic account; etc. 

^ Correct errors: — The Chinee language ; roman virtue ; the Spain- 
ish government; the Central America republics; Greecian history ; 
Japanese fans; Scottish snuff; the Asian countries; the mohamme- 
dan religion. 

§# 

LESSON XXXVI. 

Turn to the engraving on page 49. 

Henry, Paul, and Fritz, are playing leap-frog. Henry, who stands 
waiting his turn, is young ; Paul, who is in the act of leaping, is younger; 
Fritz, whose body is bent, is the youngest. The quality of youth belongs to 
all three, but in different degrees. These degrees are denoted by varying 
the form of the adjective young : young, younger, youngest. 

Two men are standing near the fountain. How would you say that one 
has the quality of largeness in a higher degree than the other ? ( One is — 
than the other.) 

If you wished to speak of that one of the pigeons which has the quality 
of plumpness in the highest degree, what would you say ? ( The — .) 

How many men are shown in the engraving ? Which is the oldest ? 

The form of some adjectives may be varied, to denote 
different degrees ©f a quality. They are then said to be 
compared* 

Young is compared thus : young, younger, youngest. 

From the simple form of the adjective, the Compara- 
tive is obtained by adding er. It denotes a higher degree 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 5] 

than some other. " Paul is younger, smaller, than Hen- 
ry." The Superlative is formed by adding est It denotes 
the highest degree of all that are compared. u Fritz is 
the youngest, smallest, of the three." 

Compare small, low, bright, dull, high, soft, tender, tough. 

Compare vile. — Vile, vil er, (not vileer), vil est (not vileest). 

Compare holy. — Holy, holi er (not holyer), holi est (not holyest). 

Compare hot. — Hot, hott er (not hoter), hott est (not hotest). 

What is the final letter of vile, — that is, with what letter does vile end ? 
What change is made in vile, before er and est are added ? 

What is the final letter of holy ? What change is made in holy, before 
er and est are added ? 

What letter does hot end with ? Is t a vowel or a consonant ? By 
what letter is t in hot preceded ? .Is o a vowel or a consonant ? What 
change is made in hot, before er and est are added ? 

In some cases, adjectives undergo a change, when er 
and est are added to form the comparative and superla- 
tive : — 

1. Final e is rejected ; as, fine, fin er, fin est. 

2. Final y, if preceded by a consonant, is changed to 
if as, heavy, heavier, heaviest. 

3. In words of one syllable, a final consonant, pre- 
ceded by but one vowel, is doubled ; as, thin, thinner, 
thinnest. 

If two vowels precede, the final consonant is not 
doubled ; as, cool, cooler, coolest. 

Examples. — Write the comparative and superlative of crude ; dainty ; 
sad; sweet; large; deep; homely; fierce; lowly; proud; angry; feeble; 
great; easy; gentle; stout; quiet. 

If a person has supreme power, can any one have supremer power ? If 
a thing is entire, can any thing be entirer ? Would it suit your ear to say 
"a delightfuler evening," "the amusingest story"? What would you say 
in stead of delightfuler ? In stead of amusingest ? 

Some adjectives do not form a comparative and super- 
lative in er and est :— 



52 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

1, Because their meaning does not admit of degrees. 
This is the case with such as express number, with proper 
adjectives, and with many others — as, infinite, daily, 
wooden, etc. 

2. Because adding er and est would make ill-sound- 
ing words. This is the case with some adjectives of two 
syllables, and all of more than two. We must not say 
gracefuler, gracefulest — agreeabler, agreeablest. 

Use in stead more or most, with the simple form of 
the adjective ; more graceful, most graceful — more agree- 
able, most agreeable. 

More and most with the simple adjective may also be 
used, in many cases, as equivalents for the comparative 
and superlative in er and est. We may say, 

Brief — briefer, briefest, or more brief, most brief. 
Ample — ampler, amplest, or more ample, most ample. 

EXERCISE. 

The Force of Custom. — Many people do things because their 
fathers did them, without themselves knowing the why or where- 
fore. 

Napoleon is said once to have found an old empty house guarded 
by a military patrol. The faithful sentinel knew that he was posted 
there, but why he had not the slightest idea. By diligent inquiry 
it was found that, two hundred years before, the building had been 
used for a short time by the French government as a depository of 
military stores. Strict guard had been kept over it ever since, 
though inside there was nothing but sportive rats to guard. 

Write the adjectives in the above extract, in three lists. In the 1st, 
place those which by reason of their meaning are not compared; in the 
2d, those that tale er and est, writing out these forms; in the 3d, 
those that take more and most to denote the degrees, writing out these 
forms. State what noun each adjective relates to. How does the adjec- 
tive generally stand, as regards its noun f 



IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 



53 



LESSON XXXVII. 

A good man ; a better man ; the best man. 
What adjective is compared above ? Is it compared regularly or irregu- 
larly ? Would it be right to say a gooder man — the goodesi man ? 

Some short adjectives in common use Lave irregular 
comparatives and superlatives. Learn the following : — 





Comp. 


Sup. 




Comp. 


Sup. 


Good, 


better, 


best. 


Far, 


farther, 


farthest. 


Bad, evil, ill, 


worse, 


worst. 


Late 


j later, 
( latter, 


latest. 


Little, 


less, lesser, 


least. 




last. 


Many, 


more, 


most. 


Old, 


( older, 
( elder, 


oldest. 


Much, 


more, 


most. 




eldest. 



Lesser is rarely used in prose (the lesser vices) ; less is the common form. 

Later and latest refer to time ; later news, the latest departure. 

Latter and last refer to order ; the latter word (as opposed to the for- 
mer), the last word on the page. 

Elder and eldest may be used when members of the same family are 
spoken of; the eldest sister. But older should be used when than follows. 

In some superlatives, most is appended. We speak of 
the foremost soldiers, the hindmost row, the inmost court, 
the outermost line, the utmost care, the uppermost tier. 

Give one adjective that will express farthest toward the outside — most 
remote from the outside — in the front rank — above all the rest. In what de- 
gree are these adjectives ? 

If you wish to speak of a boy that has a good temper, how can you do 
it in the fewest words ? (A — boy.) A boy that has a better temper would 
be called a — boy. The boy that has the best temper would be the — boy. 
A single adjective, then, may express the meaning of how many words? 

A Compound Adjective is one that is formed from or 
of two simple words ; as, good-tempered, soft-spoken. 

What mark is used to f Good-tempered, better-tempered, best-tempered ? 

connect the parts of I Ill-natured, worse-natured, worst-natured ? 

- Fine-looking, finer-looking, finest-looking? 

Dark-eyed, darker-eyed, darkest-eyed ? 

Sweet-toned, sweeter-toned, sweetest-toned ? 



Which part changes, 
when we compare 



54: COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES: 

Some compound adjectives are compared by varying 
the first of the simple words that compose them. Give 
examples from the above list. 

If a thing is worse, should we call it worser ? There being no rank 
higher than the highest, is it right to say the most highest rank ? 

Comparatives and superlatives must not be further 
compared ; nor should more and most be used with them. 

Adjectives whose meaning does not admit of different 
degrees must not be compared ; nor should more, most, 
less, least, or so, be used with them. We should not say, 
chief est, most supreme, least perfect, more preferable, so 
entire, etc. 

EXE rci s E. 

Supply adjectives in the comparative degree : — A — mountain ; 
a — church ; — lakes ; the — house ; — horses ; — girls ; a city 
— than New York ; flowers — than the lily. 

Supply irregular comparatives :— An — brother; — luck; the 
— , the merrier ; the — said, the better ; — laborers are needed. 

Write one compound adjective equivalent to each group of words, 
and give its comparative and superlative (remembering the hyphen) : — 
Having a warm heart ; that has a light complexion ; in the habit of 
speaking softly ; having a tender heart ; having an ill nature ; having 
a slow motion ; that has bright eyes ; whose mind is fair. 

Correct errors : — 1. James said that Grammar was his worsest 
study. 2. The generous man takes the littler share for himself. 3. 
Nothing is more truer than that money is a root of evil. 4. The 
most soft spoken men are not always the most good-humored. 5. 
The eldest of these trees is the littleest and the least healthiest. 
6. So infinite is space that we can form no idea of its extent. 

7. The fartherest route is sometimes the most preferable. 8. 
My brother is elder than my sister. 9. Switzerland has a freer gov- 
ernment and is in a much more better condition than Spain. 10. 
The most hot and low countries are in many cases the most un- 
healthiest. 11. A more inferior position could hardly be found. 
12. Our chiefest pleasures are sometimes the hurtfulest. 



THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND USE. 55 

13. Business is deader than ever. 14. The most universal indif- 
ference prevails on this subject. 15. The deafest man is he which 
will not hear. 16. How much more is the Caucasian superior to 
the other races! 17. Even the most faultless character has its 
defects. 18. The eldest friends are generally the faithfulest. 

M 

LESSON XXXVIII. 

Right. 1. London is the larger of the two cities. 

2. London is the largest of the three cities. 

3. London is larger than any other city. 

Wrong. 4. London is the largest of the two cities. 

5. London is larger than any city. 

6. London is the largest of oriental cities. 

7. London is the largest of all other cities. 

8. London is the largest of any city. 

4. Wrong, because, but two being compared, only a higher degree is to 
be denoted. Say larger in stead of largest. 

5. Wrong, because London is itself a city, and it is not larger than 
itself. Say any other city, thus excluding London. 

6. Wrong, because this would imply that London is an oriental city. 
Say larger than any oriental city. 

1. Wrong, because London is itself a city, and should not be excluded 
by other, the superlative being used. Say the largest of all cities. 

8. Wrong, because the use of largest implies that several are compared, 
whereas city denotes but one. Say the largest of all cities. 

In comparing two objects, use the Comparative; in 
comparing more than two at once, the Superlative. 

After a Comparative, use other with the latter term 
compared if it includes the former, and only then. 

After the superlative use neither other nor any with 
the latter term. 

Use to, not than, after the comparatives superior, in- 
ferior, anterior, posterior, prior ; as, " The Deluge was 
prior to the Dispersion." 



56 EXERCISES ON ADJECTIVES. 

Use the pronoun that, not who or which, after a super- 
lative — also after the adjectives very and no ; as, " The 
%igliest clog that (not which) I ever saw." " The very dog 
that (not which) passed yesterday." " No man £Aa£ (not 
who) lives, could have borne it." 

Use adjectives appropriately, and without undue ex- 
aggeration. 

Few means not many ; little means not much. "We have few fears, but 
little fear." "Not fewer than fifty persons were present." 

Do not speak of terrific, or horrible, or awful, or beastly weather, if you 
mean simply bad or unpleasant weather. Nor of a sweet, angelic, gorgeous, 
splendid, or stunning dress, if you mean merely a very handsome dress. 

EXERCISE. 

Supply adjectives in the superlative: — The — babies; our — 
thoughts ; the — fire ; my — hours ; the — season ; the — steam- 
boats ; your — shoes ; her — brother. 

Supply irregular superlatives : — The — chance ; our — enemy ; 
there is not the — excuse ; — people are forgetful ; the — row ; the 
— line ; the — layer ; my — letter. 

Correct errors: — 1. Samson was the strongest of all his descend- 
ants. 2. Which sounds the sweetest to you, the harp or the gui- 
tar ! 3. Antony had now little hopes of obtaining the empire. 4, 
The Connecticut is the longer of the two rivers, but the Hudson is 
the most picturesque. 5. No man who ever sat on the English 
throne was wickeder than Johu. 

8. Which of the twins is the fatest? 7. Which is the longer, 
the Amazon, the Mississippi, or the nile. 8. The Volga is the long- 
est of any river in Europe. 9. A sweet pretty hat ; an awful good 
supper ; a horrid man. 10. The rose is the most fragrant of any 
other flower. 11. Than Shakespeare what poet is superior? 

12. Though my barn is larger than yours, your's is the prettiest. 
13. The French are more polite than any nation. 14. Nero was 
the greatest tyrant whom history mentions. 15. The most princi- 
pal exports of Japan are tea, silk, and rice ; the former is the most 
important. 16. What a terrific hubbub them girls are making? 



ARRANGEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 57 



LESSON XXXIX. 

u China contains a dense population. This population consists of an 
intelligent people. They are accustomed to work hard. They are well 
satisfied with themselves. They have not a great deal of courage." 

Let us see whether we can not express the above more 
briefly and forcibly : — " China contains a dense popula- 
tion of intelligent, hard-working, but self-satisfied, and 
not very courageous, people." 

How many sentences are there in the first paragraph ? Into how many 
are they condensed in the second ? What kind of words have we used, to 
express the different ideas so briefly ? What adjective expresses accustomed 
to work hard? What adjective expresses well satisfied with themselves? 
What kind of adjectives are these ? By what are their parts connected ? 
What words express that they have not a great deal of courage ? What 
mark is placed after each adjective in the series, in the condensed sentence ? 

A single adjective may denote what it would other- 
wise require several words to express. 

Would you say a marble ornamental fountain, or an ornamental marble 
fountain ? A spirited ichite horse or a white spirited horse ? An old dig- 
nified man or a dignified old man ? A large, old, white, marble fountain, or 
a marble, white, old, large, fountain ? In the last case, the adjective de- 
noting material should stand next to the noun, then that denoting color, 
then that denoting age ; such as express ordinary qualities should precede : — 
(size, appearance, etc.) (age) (color) (material) noun. 

If one of several adjectives unites with the noun more 
closely than the rest to form a complex idea, it must stand 
nearest to the noun. 

Which sounds better, a rich and well-cultivated soil or a well-cultivated 
and rich soil? An unhealthy, most disagreeable, and moist climate, or a 
moist, unhealthy, and most disagreeable climate ? The shortest adjective 
should stand first. 

Adjectives expressing ordinary qualities, relating to 
the same noun, are generally arranged according to their 
length — the shortest first. 



58 EXERCISE ON ADJECTIVES. 

Periods, interrogation-points, exclamation-points, etc., 
are called Punctuation-points. Inserting these points is 
called Punctuating, 

How do you punctuate a sentence expressing a statement — a question 
— an exclamation — a command ? How do you punctuate a series of adjec- 
tives used with the same noun ? 

EXERCISE. 

Express the following groups of sentences, each in one sentence, 
using adjectives properly arranged : — 

1. Let your conversation be entertaining. Let it be instructive. 
Let it be pure. Let it be truthful. 

2. Youth is improvident. Youth is happy. Youth is unsuspi- 
cious. Youth is thoughtless. 

3. Old age is calculating. Old age is querulous. It is full of 
distrust. It is fond of self. 

4. A small beautiful summer-house has been erected on the 
pond. This summer-house is built of wood ; it is white. 

5. The Academy was a large building. It was handsomely- 
situated. It had three stories. It had been recently erected. It 
was built of brick. 

6. We always like to meet with frank young men. We like to 
meet with young men of energy (energetic) and enterprise (enter- 
prising). We like to meet with young men of good hearts and 
noble minds. We like to meet with young men of even tempers. 

7. When Columbus first landed on San Salvador, he found it 
occupied by a hospitable race. This race was not civilized. They 
were of the color of copper. They had simple minds. They did 
not entertain suspicion. 

8. The Khine is a more useful river than the Ehone. It is 
much more picturesque than the Ehone. The Rhone is shorter 
than the Khine. 

9. Of all animals, the elephant is the most powerful. The ele- 
phant is also the largest of animals, and has the most intelligence 
and sagacity. 

Write six sentences, each containing one of the nouns that follow, 
modified dy the adjectives given icith it, 'properly arranged : — 



THE ADJECTIVE. 59 

1. House: brown-stone, four-story, well-built, new. 

2. School: well-disciplined, orderly, large, public. 

3. Mill: wooden, dilapidated, old, silent, moss-covered. 

4. Eoses: June, French, fragrant, twenty, variegated. 

5. Ladies : beautiful, graceful, amiable, young, modest. 

6. Winter: most trying, coldest, most changeable, dreariest, 

dullest, most disagreeable. 



--&?-- 



LESSON XL. 

MY LADY AND HER ATTENDANTS. 

There is a very useful lady whom we often meet ; we should 
find it hard to get along without her. You may not know her 
name ; but she can tell you the name of everybody. 

When she goes out, she often has an attendant, who keeps close 
to her, generally walking before, but sometimes coming after her. 
This attendant tells every one she meets something about her mis- 
tress, and at times perhaps she talks rather too loud. She is very 
fond of comparing her lady with other people. 

Not unfrequently my lady is accompanied by two, three, or 
more of such attendants, all telling different things about her. 
Some of them are very proper persons — capital waiting-maids. 
She is then careful to place the one she is most intimate with near- 
est to herself; but, if she is on equal terms with all, she places the 
shortest first and the tallest last. So my lady and her train are in 
everybody's mouth. 

Can you guess my riddle? What is my lady's name? What 
are her attendants called ? 



Copy the above story. Write n. over each noun, p. 
over each pronoun, a. over each adjective. 

In the first paragraph, do you see this mark ( ; ) ? 
How often is it used 'i It is called the Semicolon, and is 



60 THE VERB. 

used to separate the main divisions of sentences, which 
have distinct subjects. 

What are the two main divisions of the first sentence of the story ? 
What is the subject of each ? How are they separated ? Mention the two 
main divisions of the second sentence. What is the subject of each ? How 
are they separated ? Where do you next find the semicolon used ? What 
does it there separate ? 

EXE RCI S E . 

Write a Composition on The Adjective, telling all you know 
about it ; be sure that your sentences affirm something. (You may 
tell what it is — what it goes with — what it may express — kinds — 
how to tell a proper, and how a compound, adjective — how com- 
pared — what the different degrees denote — where an adjective 
stands in a sentence — its usefulness.) 

Exchange compositions; correct one another's, marking errors 
of every kind. 



LESSON XLI. 

We have learned that a sentence may express a state- 
ment, a command, a question, or an exclamation. 

Whatever it expresses, every sentence contains at least 
one word (sometimes several words taken together as 
one), that does the affirming. This is the word of the 
sentence — the Verb. Yerbum is the Latin for vjord. 

A Verb is a word or words used to affirm an action or a 
state. 

In the following, select each verb (giving all the words, if it consists of 
more than one), and state whether it affirms an action or a state : — 1. Chil- 
dren grow. 2. Might makes right. 3. David slew Goliath. 4. Cold was 
the blast. 5. Brazil was discovered by Cabral. 6. Washington might 
have been a king, if he had wished. 7. Look not upon the wine when 
it is red. 8. What a striking lesson does the career of Napoleon teach ! 
9. To sleep — to dream — is this the end of life ? 



THE VERB. 



61 




The Picnic -Pakty. 

"What are they all doing ? 

Two ladies — (are picking flowers). 

One of the ladies — . 

The man with the oar — . 

One of the hoys — ; the other — 

The man in the woods — . 

The little girl — . 

The above, as given, were not sentences. You made 
sentences out of them how? Among the words thus 
inserted each time, was a what? Underline the verbs 
inserted. Every sentence must contain a Verb. 

Did the verbs you used above affirm actions or states ? 
Insert in the following, verbs that will affirm a state : — 

The river — smooth. Shawls and baskets — on the ground. 

The verb affirms an action or a state about something. 
This something is called the Subject of the verb. 



G2 THE SUBJECT OF THE VERB. 

" Two ladies are walking on the shore." Are walk- 
ing is a verb ; it affirms that the ladies are doing some- 
thing. Ladies is the subject of the verb are walking. 

The subject may be found by asking a question with 
who or what before the verb ; the answer to the question 
is the subject. Thus : " Who are walking ? " Ladies 
are walking— ladies is the subject. 

Mention the subjects in the sentences you completed under the engrav- 
ing ? How does the subject generally stand, as regards its verb ? 

Look at Sentence 4, near the bottom of page 60. Mention the verb in 
that sentence. Mention the subject. Which stands first ? 

What is the first verb in Sentence 7 ? What is the subject of the verb 
look? You can not find any. It is thou understood. (" Look not who ? " 
Look not thou upon the wine when it is red.) Kemember that the subject 
of a verb expressing a command is often left out, or as we say understood. 
It is generally thou, you, or ye. 

E*XE RCISE. 

Select the subjects in Sentences 1 — 9, at the bottom of page 60. 
Write in separate lists the verbs, and their subjects, as they occur in 
the story on page 59. 

Subjects are given below. Supply with each all the appropriate 
verbs you can, so as to make sentences. (Thus : — Boys and girls eat, 
drink, play, study, work, sing, talk, whisper, laugh, run, are petted, 
are kissed, will be caressed, may be spoiled, etc.) 

Boys and girls — . The moon — . Birds — . 

Newspapers — . Horses — . Doctors — . 

A vessel — . Water — . We — . 

Verbs are given below. Supply with each all the appropriate sub- 
jects you can think of, so as to make sentences. (Thus : — Ducks, geese, 
fish, trout, boys, men, children, dogs, swans, frogs, eels, turtles, 
snakes, I, etc., can swim.) 

— can swim. — must die. — frolic. 
■ — are eaten. — are raised. — fly. 

— is studied. — are read. — have been built. 



THE SUBJECT AND THE OBJECT. 63 

LESSON XLII. 

1. Rome was on the Tiber. 5. He sleeps. 

2. Home conquered. 6. He loves. 

3. Rome conquered Carthage. 1. He loves her. 

4. Carthage was conquered by Rome. 8. She is loved by him. 
Write the above sentences. From them we may learn several things : — 

1. Verbs may have pronouns, as well as nouns, for 
their subjects. Which sentences above show this ? 

2. The subject may be represented as existing, or 
being in a certain state. Which sentences show this ? 

3. The subject may be represented as acting, without 
reference to any object. Which sentences show this ? 

4. The subject may be represented as acting on some 
person or thing. Which sentences show this ? 

The person or thing acted on by the subject is the 
Object. Name the object in Sentence 3 ; in Sentence 7. 

In Sentence 3, how are you able to distinguish the object from the sub- 
ject ? In Sentence 7, what enables you to distinguish the object from the 
subject? If the object stood first — her he loves — would there be any dif- 
ficulty in distinguishing them ? Why notr? 

5. By altering the form of the verb, and using Jy, 
subject and object may be interchanged without any 
change of meaning. That is, the new subject (which 
before was the object) may be represented as acted upon 
by the actor (which before was the subject). 

We thus have two equivalent forms of expression : — 

Rome conquered Carthage. =s Carthage was conquered by Rome. 
Did Rome conquer Carthage ? = Was Carthage conquered by Rome ? 

As we have learned, some pronouns appear in differ- 
ent forms when used as subject and object. We must, 
therefore, be able readily to distinguish subject from 
object, and must use the proper pronoun accordingly. 



64 THE OBJECT OF THE VERB. 

What is the objective form of / (see page 45) ? Of we ? Of thou ? 
Of she ? Of they f Of who t Of he ? Write the following :— 

1. It is I. 3. Who was she ? 5. I knew it to be him. 

2. It struck me. 4. Whom did it strike ? 6. What said she ? 

Observe that verbs which denote existence merely — 
am, is, are, was, were, will he, etc. — can have no object. 
A pronoun following such a verb must be in the subjec- 
tive form, if a subject precedes the verb — in the objective 
form, if an object precedes it. Give examples from the 
sentences just written. 

The usual arrangement is subject verb object. 
In questions it may be object verb subject. 

Give examples from the sentences just written. 

The parts of a verb may be separated by some other 
word. Which sentence just written furnishes an exam- 
ple? 

exercise. 

I. Supply iciih the following all the appropriate objects you can 
think of, so as to malce sentences. (Thus: — Horses draw carts, wag- 
ons, carriages, gigs, cars, stages, coaches, loads, travellers, us, etc.) 

I. Horses draw — . 2. From the top of the mountain you can 
see — . 3. Learned men have written — . 4. New York contains 
— . 5. Carpenters are constantly making — . 6. Hotels use — in 
great quantities. 7. Will you get me some — ? 8. Ships carry 
— . 9. Merchants sell — . 

II. Write equivalent sentences (see models near the bottom of page 
63), underlining the subjects: — 

Napoleon invaded Eussia. Has Congress admitted New Mexico 
as a state ? The trade- winds waft ships quickly across the ocean. 
Alaska was bought from Kussia by the United States. We might 
have avoided these mistakes. The southern shores of Europe are 
washed by the Mediterranean. How terribly Napoleon III. was 
beaten by the Prussians ! They have accomplished wonders. All 
things were made by him. 



THE VERB-ROOT. G5 

III. Complete the following : — It is {she or her?). I knew it to 
be (him or he?). I felt sure that it was (them or they?). (Whom 
or who ?) was she ? (Whom or who?) did you mean? (Whom or 
wfo? ?) did you say had arrived? (Who or whom?) did you tell me 
to entertain ? ( ITAo or whom ?) do men say that I am ? It was 
(they or £A^>?i ?) that called. It was (us or W6 ?) he meant. 

IV. TFWte a composition about A Picnic-Paety, drawing your 
ideas from the picture on page 61. (Describe the place— the party 
— what the grown folks did — how the children amused themselves 
—what they had to eat — what they found in the woods — how wet 
they got. You know it always rains at picnics.) 



--&?— 



LESSON XLIII. 

Help. To help. They helped. The boys might help. 

Helping. I will help. She may have been helped. 

He helps. You have helped. Could he have been helped ? 

Write the above. Underline the verb in each. AJThat 
is the simplest form of the verb that you have written ? 
This simplest form is called the Verb-Root. 

From the verb-root help come various longer forms, 
just as from the root of a rose-bush spring different stems 
with longer or shorter branches. 

How is the verb helped formed from the root help ? How is the verb 
will help formed from the root ? How is the verb may have been helped 
formed from the root ? In what three ways, then, may verbs be formed 
from a verb-root ? 

Form some verbs from the roots select — destroy — dress. What is the 
root of must have passed — would have been appointed — blushing ? 

To help. How is this verb formed from the root? 
Can it affirm any thing of a subject ? As to help can not 
be limited to a subject, it is said to be in the Infinitive. 

To unites with a verb-root, to form a verb in the Infini- 
tive ; as, to study, to play. 



66 CONSTRUCTION OF THE INFINITIVE. 

The infinitive may be used, in stead of a noun, as the 
subject of a verb ; as, " To study is not unpleasant." 

Or it may be used after an adjective or a noun, in sen- 
tences beginning with it is / as, "It is not unpleasant to 
study" " It is our duty to study." 

We thus have three equivalent forms of expression : — 

1. Studying is not unpleasant. 

2. To study is not unpleasant. 

3. It is not unpleasant to study. 

The infinitive may also be used to limit the meaning 
of some other word, particularly a verb ; as, " Try to (not 
and) improve" " We were about to start" 

Do not use for to with the root, to form the infini- 
tive. " Titus was sent to subdue the Jews," — not for to 
subdue the Jews. 

Do not separate to from the root by an intervening 
word. " We should strive faithfidly to perform our 
duty," or " to perform our duty faithfully" — not to 
faithfully perform our duty. 

Just hear it rain. They were let go. 

We will make her tell. You dare not do it. 

Bid him enter. I see it crack, and feel it shake. 

Rain, tell, enter, etc., limiting the meaning of the verbs that precede 
them, are in the infinitive, yet lack the sign of the infinitive — to. This is 
because after certain verbs this sign is omitted. 

Omit to, the sign of the infinitive, after hear, make, 
bid, let, dare (meaning venture), see, and feel, 

EXERCISE 

'Write two equivalent sentences for each of the following , consulting 
forms 1, 2, 3, near the top of the page. Underline the infinitives in 
the sentences written: — 1. Sitting in the house all day is not healthy. 
2. To repeat slanders about our neighbors is not the kindest thing 
in the world. 3. It is always improving to the mind to travel in 



THE PARTICIPLE. £7 

foreign countries. 4. It was indeed a stupendous undertaking to 
connect ocean with ocean by an iron road. 5. Describing one's 
emotions on first beholding Niagara is a difficult task. 
Write six sentences containing infinitives. 

Correct errors: — 1. Young men, on leaving college, often travel 
for to see something of the world. 2. How great an accomplish- 
ment it is to gracefully enter a room ! 3. Few travellers dare to 
ascend Mount Blanc. 4. Is it not better to openly censure a per- 
son than to secretly cast reflections on him ? 

5. Cats will travel miles, for to get back to their old homes. 
6. Self-respect should make men to give up their vile habits. 7- 
We can see these causes to operate every day. 8. They bid me to 
go to Paris, and to thence proceed as quickly as possible to London. 
9. Some men talk just for to display their own learning. 



LESSON XLIV. 

They crossed the river and marched rapidly on. 
Crossing the river, they marched rapidly on. 

Is there any difference of meaning in these two sentences ? Which 
asserts that the crossing took place ? Which merely assumes or implies 
that it took place ? This difference comes from using crossed in the first 
sentence and crossing in the second. Crossing is called a Participle. 

A Participle is a form of the verb that qualifies or limits 
the meaning of a noun or pronoun, by assuming some action 
or state in connection with it. 

Two participles may generally be formed by adding 
ing and ed to the verb-root ; as, respect, respect?^, re- 
spect^. 

Form two participles from heat — hinder — benefit. What is the verb- 
root of thundering — esteemed — accepting ? 

What changes, did we find, must be made in certain 
adjectives, when er and est are added to form the com- 
parative and superlative (p. 51)? Similar changes are 



68 



FORMATION OF PARTICIPLES. 



made in certain verb-roots when participles are formed. 
Write the following : — 

Participles of pile 



But 



PILE 

STUN . 


— piling, 

— stunn ing, 


pil ed. 
stunned. 


REFER 
HURRY 


— referr ing, 

— hurry ing, 


r eferr ed. 
hurri ed. 


LOAN 

APPLAUD 

OFFER 


— loan ing, 

— applaud ing, 

— offer ing, 


loan ed. 
applaud ed 
offer ed. 



employ — employ ing, employ ed. 



With what letter does pile end (refer to what you have just written) ? 
What change is made in pile, when ing and ed are added ? 

Does stun end with a vowel or a consonant ? By how many vowels is 
this final consonant (n) preceded ? What change is made in stun, when 
ing and ed are added ? Looking in the second list, do you find the final n 
of loan doubled, when its participles are formed ? Why not — is the final 
consonant of loan preceded by one vowel or more ? 

Does refer end with a vowel or a consonant ? By how many vowels 
is this final consonant (r) preceded ? Which syllable of refer' receives the 
accent, or stress of the voice ? What change is made in refer, when ing 
and ed are added ? Do you find the final consonant of applaud and offer 
doubled in the second list, when their participles are formed ? Why not — 
how many vowels precede the final consonant of applaud? Which syllable 
of offer is accented ? 

With what letter does hurry end ? Is the final y preceded by a vowel 
or a consonant ? What change is made in hurry, when ing is added ? 
What change is made in hurry, when ed is added ? Do you find the final 
y of employ changed to i, when ed is added ? Why not — is the final y of 
employ preceded by a vowel or a consonant ? 

In adding ing and ed, to form participles, 

1. Final e of the verb-root is rejected ; as, — .* 

2. In roots of one syllable, and those of more than 
one if accented on the last syllable, a final consonant pre- 
ceded by but one vowel is doubled ; as, — . 

3. Final y, if preceded by a consonant, is changed to 



* Select an example of the rule each time from the above list. 



EXERCISE ON PARTICIPLES. 69 

i when ed is added, but remains unchanged when ing is 
added; as, — . 

But retain final e, if preceded by e or o, when ing is 
added; as, fee, feeing ; hoe, hoeing. 

Never double x ; mix, mixing, mixed. 

EXERCISE. 

Write the infinitive and two participles of hate ; woo ; defraud ; 
disagree ; fit ; array ; bare ; vex ; omit ; attract ; survey ; ply ; pan- 
der ; decoy ; drown ; fix ; pur ; proclaim ; shoe ; shy ; plunder. 

Change to equivalent sentences containing participles, according to 
the example at the commencement of this Lesson: — 1. Washington left 
his camp-fires burning, and silently withdrew his men. 2. If we 
write often, we shall soon learn to write well. {Commence with by 
and a participle.) 3. When we study a subject diligently, we are 
sure to master it in the end. 4. Columbus knew that an eclipse of 
the moon was about to take place, and gathered the natives around 
him. 5. The good man dies, and is loved and esteemed by all that 
knew him. 6. The wicked flee when no man pursueth, for they 
are harassed by a guilty conscience. 

§# 

LESSON XLV. 

"Leaving his camp-fires burning, Washington withdrew his men." 
What is the first participle in this sentence ? Write the part of the 
sentence which is made up of leaving and the words dependent on it — 

Leaving his camp-fires burning. 
Such a division of a sentence is called a Clause ; and as this clause con- 
tains a participle, it is called a Participial Clause. 

A Clause is part of a sentence containing a verb, but 
not expressing a complete thought. 

A Participial Clause is a clause containing a participle* 
In the example at the commencement of the Lesson, by what point is 
the participial clause set off? Might the participial clause have been intro- 
duced elsewhere — for instance, " Washington, leaving his camp-fires burn- 



70 PARTICIPIAL CLAUSES. 

ing, withdrew his men " ? How do you find the participial clause punctu- 
ated in this case ? 

A participial clause is generally set oft' from the rest of 
the sentence with the comma. 

But when it modifies the object of a verb, the connec- 
tion is often too close to admit of a comma ; as, " We saw 
a torrent rushing headlong through the valley." 

A participial clause modifying the subject of a verb, 
particularly if long, generally precedes the subject. It 
should always do so, when the subject is a pronoun. 
"Biding along, he suddenly beheld the castle;" not, 
" He, riding along, suddenly beheld the castle." 

" While standing on deck, the most beautiful landscapes passed in suc- 
cession before our eyes." Here the participial clause modifies landscapes, 
the subject of the verb that follows ; but it was we that stood on deck, not 
the landscapes. We must, therefore, make we the subject : " While stand- 
ing on deck, we beheld a succession of the most beautiful landscapes." Or 
we may substitute we and a verb for the participle : " While we were stand- 
ing on deck, the most beautiful landscapes," etc. 

See that a participial clause is used with the noun or 
pronoun it is intended to modify. 

" Caesar's crossing the Rubicon was the cause of war." Whaf was the 
cause of war ? Crossing the Rubicon. Whose crossing the Rubicon ? 
Ccesar's. Here in stead of the participle's modifying the noun, the noun is 
made to modify the participle, and the noun is in the possessive form. A 
pronoun used under like circumstances would also have to be in the posses- 
sive form. " His crossing the Rubicon was the cause of war." 

A noun or pronoun used to modify a participle must be 
in the possessive form. 

EXERCISE. 

Correct errors : — 1. Kniting, weaveing, sawing, spliting, grind- 
ing, printting, and doing a hundred other necessary things, we find 
in steam one of our most useful servants. 2. Shuned and hateed 
by all, who now would envy Benedict Arnold? 3. No one can 



EXERCISES ON PARTICIPLES. 71 

count on fortunes always favoring him. 4. Napoleon insisting on 
too much was the source of unnumbered evils to France. 5. Now- 
adays we seldom hear of a man sacrificeing himself for others. 

f>. I, desireing to be of assistance, promptly offered my ser- 
vices. 7. By appliing ourselves diligently to business, success is 
almost sure to follow. 8. There was no time to lose, for they, 
seing their opportunity, at once tried to outflank us. 9. Though 
plyed with questions, no information could be got out of the wit- 
ness. 10. You, remembering the golden rule, should overlook the 
wrongs you have suffered. 11. Propagateing his doctrines with the 
sword Mohammed soon widely extended his new religion. 

m 

LESSON XL VI, 

Participial clauses sometimes enable tis to express 
neatly and forcibly in one sentence what might other- 
wise require two or more sentences. Thus: — 

The Romans were obliged to abandon their distant provinces. 

They had enough to do to defend themselves against the barbarians. 

These barbarians were now pressing upon them from the north. 

Combined in one sentence :— ^Obliged to abandon their distant provinces, 
the Romans had enough to do to defend themselves against the barbarians, 
now pressing upon them from the north, 

EXERCISE. 

Form into one sentence each group given below, using participial 
clauses : — 

1. The allies next laid siege to the strong fortress of Sevastopol. 
This was situated in the Crimea. 

2. The moon revolves round the earth. The moon is carried 
with the earth round the sun. 

3. Our prevailing system of notation was introduced into 
Europe by the Arabians. It was probably derived by them from 
the Hindoos. It was not generally adopted before the fourteenth 
century. 



72 DIFFERENT FORMS OF THE VERB. 

4. The hippopotamus is possessed of an enormous appetite. It 
has a stomach capable of holding live or six bushels of food. This 
animal is very destructive to the cultivated lands that lie in the 
neighborhood of its haunts. 

5. Hippopotamuses are gregarious animals. They collect in 
herds of twenty or thirty. They make the air resound with their 
snorts, as they play together. 

6. Our forefathers declared their independence of the mother- 
country. They staked their lives and fortunes on the issue of the 
war. This war was forced upon them by Great Britain. 

Write twelve sentences appropriate to the engraving on page 6, con- 
taining participial clauses or infinitives ; as, 

Frightened by the noise, the lambs scampered away. 
These girls look as if they liked to ride on the hay. 

se 

LESSON XLVII. 

From one verb-root we get many verbs, which differ 
in their manner of affirming, the time they express, etc. 
Thus, with verbs from the root call, we may affirm the 
&Q,i positively, as present, past, or future: — 

I call. I do call. I have called. I shall call. 

I am called. I have been called. I shall be called. 

I is a pronoun, and no part of the verb. It is used with the verbs 
above, in order to make sentences. Which of the above verbs express 
present time ? Which express past time ? Which, future ? Which affirm 
the act as performed by the subject ? 

Or we may affirm the act as possible, necessary, or 
obligatory ; as, 



I may, can, must, might, could, would, should, 



call. 

have called. 

be called. 

have been called. 



Or we may affirm the act as a condition ; as, 

If I be called, I will go. If I were called, I would go. 



COMPOUND VERB-FORMS. 73 

These different Compound Forms are made by combin- 
ing the root call, or the participle called, with a number 
of little helping words — he, have, do, shall, will, may, can, 
must, might, could, would, should, etc. 

Besides other forms, we thus get compound infinitive 
forms and compound participles, construed like the infini- 
tive and participles already considered : — 

He is said to have called. Being called. 

He is about to be called. Having called. 

He was to have been called. Having been called. 

"He having arrived, we were ready for the journey," Here he is 
neither subject nor object, but is used with the participle having arrived, 
independently of other words in the sentence, and is in the subjective form. 
Observe that the participial clause is set off with the comma. 

A pronoun used independently in a participial clause 
must be in the subjective form. 

EXEECISE. 

Complete by supplying compound infinitive forms : — 1. The Ice- 
landers are said — the mainland of America before Columbus. 2. 
It is not agreeable — . 3. It would have been no more than right 
for America — Columbia. 4. — is the lot of many good men. 

5. Dr. Jones was — , but he was defeated by a rival candidate. 

6. Try — for your virtues. 

Correct errors : — 1. To constantly be scolded for what one can 
not help, is intolerable. 2. Many go to Milan, for to be trained in 
music. 3. He having been once deceived is likely to be suspicious 
hereafter. 4. The colonial cause was saved by Washington being 
appointed to the chief command. 5. Having been carried past our 
station, the cars unfortunately did not stop for the next ten miles. 
6. The decree was enforced, in spite of its having been illegally* 
obtained. 7. (They or them?) having charged up the hill, the bat- 
tle became general. 8. Him having been removed, affairs were 
more discreetly managed. 

Combine in one sentence, with the aid of participial clauses, as in 
the last Lesson : — 
4 



74 AUXILIARIES. 

1. The Czar next proceeded to England. He had obtained in 
Holland such knowledge of the art of ship-building as he desired. 
(Commence with Having obtained in Holland, etc.) 

2. We have been recogniztd as the owners. The rents are, 
therefore, payable to us. 

3. The locomotive was brought into a practical form by Ste- 
phenson. Railroads soon thereafter came to be the great instru- 
ments of progress. 

4. The heavy rain ceased. The sun burst forth from behind the 
clouds in all his glory. A beautiful bow spanned the firmament. 

5. The Cape of Good Hope was doubled by Yasco da Gama. 
Other Portuguese navigators followed up the discovery. A lucra- 
tive trade with the East Indies was thus soon established. 



LESSON XL VIII. 

If I be loved. I have loved. I do love. 

If I be happy. I have a dollar. I do my duty. 

Auxiliary means -helping ; and the little verbs which 
help to form compound verbs are called Auxiliaries. 

Some of the auxiliaries — be, have, and do — are used 
also as principal verbs. Look at the examples at the com- 
mencement of the Lesson, and tell in which sentences be, 
have, and do, are used as auxiliaries. "Which verbs in 
those examples have objects ? 

Those forms of the verb which affirm an action as 
now taking place, or a state as now existing, are called 
Present. The participle in ing — being, having, doing — is 
the Present Participle. 

Let us look at the Present of the verbs be, have, and 
do. The Present forms of be are quite irregular, and 
change in some cases according to the subject, as may be 
seen from the following examples :— 



THE AUXILIARIES BE, HAVE, DO. 75 

Singular Forms. — I am now happy. Thou art pale. 
He is well ; she is better ; it is best ; John is sad. 

Plural Form. — We are here ; you are merry ; they 
are noisy ; the fields are green. 

What form do you find used with I? With thou ? 
With he, she, it, or a singular noun ? What is the only 
form for all plural subjects ? Learn these forms, as pre- 
sented below with the pronouns : — 
Singulak. I am. 

Thou art. 

He, she, it — every singular noun — is. 
Plural. We, you, they — all plural nouns — are. 
Learn, in like manner, the present of have : — ■ 
Singular. I have. 

Thou hast. 

He, she, it — every singular noun — has (or hath*). 
Plural. We, you, they — all plural nouns — have. 

Learn, in like manner, the present of do : — 
Singular. I do. 

Thou dost. 

He, she, it — every singular noun — does (or doth*). 
Plural. We, you, they — all plural nouns— do. 

Who, which, and that, used as subjects, require the 
same form of the verb as the pronoun or noun for which 
they stand : / who am ; thou that art ; gold which is. 

You and I = we. He and I = we. You and he = you. 

EXERCISE. 

Supply the proper part o/be, have, or do : — 1. I — sure that all 
men sometimes — wrong. 2. A poet says, " Whatever — , is right." 
3. Thou — a shadow on thy hrow. 4. — thou a friend? I — . 
5. Lives there a man who — not sin? 6. Whales — less numerous 
than they were. 7. He — {solemn form) not listened ; he — {solemn 
form) not hear. 

* The less common form, used in solemn and poetic style. 



76 PAST FORMS OF BE, HAVE, DO. 

8. We, who — the chief sufferers, — come to complain. 9. It is 
thou that — the aggressor. 10. They who — right — their reward. 
11. You and I, who — been waiting so long, will now take our 
turn. 12. You and he — not answer. 13. He and I — going. 

14. Even I, who — surrounded by 'comforts, know what sorrow — . 

15. The foliage — fresh, the fields — charming. 

n 

LESSON XLIX. 

I was loved. I had friends. I did love. 

I was happy. We had sport. We did right. 

Here we have other forms from the verb-roots, be, have, and do. In 
which of the above sentences is was used as an auxiliary? Had? Did? 
Which of these verbs have objects ? Do they affirm an act as now taking 
place, or a state as now existing ? 

Forms of the verb which affirm that an act took place 
or a state existed, are called Past. Was, had, and did, 
are Past forms of the verbs be, have, and do. The par- 
ticiple in ed is the Past Participle. 

Was is used with all singular subjects except thou. 
Plural subjects require were. Thus : — 

Singulae. I, he, she, it — every singular noun — was. 
Thou wast. Thou who wast. 

Pltjeal. We, you, they — all plural nouns — were. 

Had is used with all subjects, singular or plural, ex- 
cept thou. Thou requires hadst. Thus : — 
I, he, she, it, we, you, they — all nouns — had. 
Thou hadst. Thou who hadst. 

Did is used with all subjects, singular or plural, ex- 
cept thou. Thou requires didst. Thus : — 

I, he, she, it, we, you, they — all nouns— did. 

Thou didst. Thou who didst. 

The Past Participles of be, have, and do, are quite 
irregular. Be makes been ; have, had ; do, done. 



EXERCISE ON VERBS. 



77 




W£ 



The school is shaded with trees. 
Does it not look pleasant \ 
The children are at play. 
They are having fine sport. 
Do you see the teacher reading? 
She has a hook in her hand. 
The view from the window is fine. 
A man is driving a mowing-machine along the road. 
Two of the girls have their eyes on a young rohin. 
The rohin does not fly very far at a time. 
Do not those stately maples make a charming shade? 
Write the above sentences, placing v. over each verb {or part of a 
compound verb), and s. over each subject. 

The verbs in the above sentences are Present. Change them to the 
corresponding Past forms:— "The school-house teas shaded with 
trees," etc. 

From the engraving, write six sentences containing Present forms 
of the verb. Write six containing Past forms. 



78 THE AUXILIARIES WILL, SHALL. 



LESSON L. 

Verbs, as we have seen, may affirm an action or state 
as present or past. They may also affirm what is about 
to be or take place. Such forms of the verb are called 
Future ; and in these the auxiliaries will and shall appear. 
Thus :— 

I shall go to-morrow. He will start immediately. We shall see. They 
will return. You will not leave me. 

But, Thou wilt not leave me. Thou shall not kill. 

Will and shall change to wilt and shalt when thou is 
the subject, but remain unchanged for other subjects. 

The remaining auxiliaries, also, change only when 
thou is the subject. But thou is not used in ordinary dis- 
course. Except in solemn or poetical style, we use you, 
whether addressing one person or more ; these auxiliaries, 
therefore, are very seldom changed. 

The forms of the remaining auxiliaries required with 
thou, in solemn or poetical style, end in st : — 

Must — thou must (no change). Might — thou mightst (mightest). 

Had — thou hadst. Could — thou couldst (couldest). 

Can — thou canst Would — thou wouldst (wouldest). 

May — thou m.ayst (or mayesi). Should — thou shouldst (shouldest). 

Write after Thou all the auxiliaries you can think of (fifteen, if possi- 
ble), in the proper form : — Thou art, wast, etc. 

Will and shall may not be used at pleasure, the one 
for the other. To express simply what is about to take 
place, shall is used with I and we / will is used with all 
other subjects. 

/ shall start next week. We shall be back to-morrow. But, He will 
start next week. The boys will be back to-morrow. 

Will used with / or we, and shall with other subjects, 
imply determination as well as futurity. 



EXERCISE ON VERBS. 79 

"I will go," — that is, I have determined to go. "We will speak," — it 
is our determination to speak. u He shall obey," — "They shall be pun- 
ished," — such is my determination. Did the Frenchman who cried in ter- 
ror, " I will drown, nobody shall save me ! " express what he intended ? 
What should he have said ? 

EXERCISE. 

Change the verbs in the following sentences, so as to make 
what is affirmed future. Thus* — 1. The children will be tired of 
playing. 

1. The children are tired of playing. 2. The flowers bloomed 
sweetly by the window of the school-house. 3. The bird escaped 
from the cage near the window. 4. Good-natured children play 
pleasantly together. 5. When recess is over, they go back to their 
lessons. 6. I asked the children to let me join them at play. 7. 
Sue helped Laura to catch the robin. 

Write six sentences containing Future forms of the verb ; let the 
engraving on page 77 suggest the thoughts. 

Complete the following by inserting auxiliaries : — 1. Columbus 
thought that he — reach the East Indies by sailing westward. 2. 
You — prepare your lesson, if you — study. 3. Close the doors ; 
nobody — leave the room. 4. We — vote, if the polls are open. 
5. We — vote in spite of you. 6. They — go, if they can. 7. You 
— have been killed. 8. She — not be allowed to go home alone. 

n 

LESSON LI. 

Review the present of be, have, and do (page 75). 

Review the past forms of these verbs — was, had, and did (page 76). 

Having learned the changes required in the auxiliaries 
for different subjects, we are now prepared to consider 
all the forms of the verb. 

Let us take the verb Rule as an example, and consider 
first the forms that represent the subject as acting. 



80 FORMS OF THE VERB. 

Peesent Fokms, — I rule; we rule ; you rule; they rule. 

But, He rules ; she rules ; it rules ; the king rules. 

In prayer or poetry, Thou rulest ; the Lord ruleth. 
For all singular subjects other than 7, the common form is 
rules; for i, and all plural subjects, rule. 

Past Fokms. — I, he, she, we, you, they, ruled. The king 

ruled; kings ruled. 

In prayer or poetry, Thmi ruledst. 
For all subjects, the common form is ruled. 
Compound Foems. — Have ruled. 

I, we, you, they, kings, Time ruled. 

He, she, the king, has ruled. 

In prayer or poetry, Thou hast ruled, he hath ruled. 
For all singular subjects other than i, the common form is 
has ruled ; for / and all plural subjects, hare ruled. 

The other compound forms, given below, are un- 
changed except with thou, which is rarely used in ordi- 
nary style. The forms with thou were given on page 78. 

Had ruled. 

Will rule. Will have ruled. 

Shall rule. Shall have ruled. 

May rule. May have ruled. 

Can rule. Can have ruled. 

Must rule. Must have ruled. 

Might rule. Might have ruled. 

Could rule. Could have ruled. 

Would rule. Would have ruled. 

Should rule. Should have ruled. 

Infinitives. — (No change.) To rule. To have ruled. 
Paeticiples. — (No change.) Ruling. Having ruled. 

EXEECISE. 

Write the parts of the verb love, following those of kule as 
given above : — 

First present all the forms used with I : — 

I love, I loved, I have loved, I had loved, I will love, etc. 



THE VERB BE. 81 

Then the forma used with he : — 

He loves, he loved, he has loved, he had loved, etc. 
Then the forms used with we : — 

We love, we loved, we have loved, we had loved, etc. 
Then the forms used with you : — 

You love, you loved, you have loved, you had loved, etc. 
Then the forms used with they: — 

They love, they loved, they have loved, they had loved, etc. 
Then the forms used with thou, in solemn style: — 

Thou lovest, thou lovedst, thou hast loved, etc. 

§# 

LESSON LIL 

We shall now take up the verb be. The present was 
given on page 75 ; the past, on page 76. Repeat them. 

When if or though precedes the present and past, 
we sometimes have be and were, used without change for 
different subjects: if I be, if thou be, if he be, if we be; 
though I were, though thou were, though he were, etc. 

Be is the form used in commands : be (thou, you). 

The participles of be are being, been. By combining 
the irregular participle been with the different auxiliaries, 
as in the case of rule, we get the compound forms of be : 

Have been, had been, will be, shall be, may be, can be, etc. 
Infinitives. — To be. To have been. 

Be, as we have seen, is both a principal verb and an 
auxiliary. By combining it in its various parts with the 
participle ruled, we get those forms of the verb rule 
that represent the subject as acted upon. Thus : — 

Am ruled. Will be ruled. Must be ruled. 

Was ruled. Shall be ruled. Might be ruled. 

Have been ruled. May be ruled. Could be ruled. 

Had been ruled. Can be ruled. Would be ruled. 



82 EXERCISES ON VERBS. 

Should be ruled. Must have been ruled. 

Will have been ruled. Might have been ruled. 

Shall have been ruled. Could have been ruled. 

May have been ruled. Would have been ruled. 

Can have been ruled. Should have been ruled. 

(If I, thou, etc.) be ruled. (If I, thou, etc.) were ruled. 

Be ruled (in commands). 
Infinitives. To be ruled. To have been ruled. 
Paeticiples. Euled. Being ruled. Having been ruled. 



He has been attacked, defeated, and driven back. 

Not, He has been attacked, has been defeated, and has been driven back. 

When similar forms of different verbs are used to- 
gether, it is generally inelegant to repeat the auxiliary. 
Use the auxiliary with the first only. 

EXE ECISE. 

Of the parts of the verb love that represent the subject as acted 
upon, write the following : — 

First the forms used with I : — 

I am loved, I was loved, I have been loved, etc. 
Then the forms used with he: — 

He is loved, he was loved, he has been loved, etc. 

Correct the following : — 1. She might have been hurt, or might 
even have been killed. 2. I hope that I may be esteemed, may be 
respected, and may be loved, by all good people. 3. Having abdi- 
cated and having retired to a monastery, Charles Y took a strange 
fancy to celebrate his own funeral. 4. Thou wilst not betray us ! 
5. I shall brave every danger, to accomplish this result. 6. Thou 
shallt not see the paling cheek. 7. Charles may succeed, if he 
would try ; he might get the prize, if he will study. 

For the following write equivalent sentences, in which the subject 
will be represented as the actor, — and underline the subject. Thus : — 
1. Trajan added Dacia to the Koman Empire. 

1. Dacia was added'to the Koman Empire by Trajan. 2. Vacci- 
nation was first practised by Dr. Jenner. 3. The great West has 



FORMS IMPLYING CONTINUANCE. 83 

been wonderfully changed by railroads within a few years. 4. The 
name of Morse will be handed down by historians as one of the 
great geniuses of the age, 5. Geography, if properly presented, 
can be mastered by quite young students. 6. Could the world have 
been moved by Archimedes with a lever, if he had had a place to 
stand on ? 

& 

LESSON LIU, 

M James is working. He has been working since daylight.^ 
Mention the subjects of these sentences. Are they represented as act* 
ing or acted upon ? What auxiliaries are used ? With what participle are 
they combined ? 

When we say James is working, we bring out the idea clearly that the 
work is now going on. We can not properly use such a form in the case 
of every verb, for continuance is implied in the meaning of some verbs 
without any special form, It would not do to say James is loving his fam- 
ily, for continuance is sufficiently implied in the common form loves. 

To denote continuance, some verbs make distinct 
forms, by combining the auxiliary be in its different parts 
with the participle in ing. Thus : — 

Am ruling, was ruling, have been ruling, etc. Sup- 
ply the rest according to the forms at the bottom of page 
81 and top of page 82.-— Participle, Having been ruling. 

The forms just given — am ruling, was ruling, etc.— 
represent the subject as acting ; but nouns used as sub- 
jects with such forms are sometimes represented as acted 
upon. The houses were building means that the build- 
ing was done to the houses, that they were in course of 
erection. 

You do not try. I do try. 
You did not try. I did try. 
Do the first two of these sentences imply present or past time f The 
last two ? What are the auxiliaries used ? 



84 NEGATIVE AND EMPHATIC FORMS. 

In ordinary language, the auxiliary do is used with 
not and the verb-root as a present " negative form," and 
did as a past " negative form ". 

Without not j these forms with do and did are " em- 
phatic," — used when it is desired to make a specially 
strong statement. See examples above. 

Do is also used in commands or emphatic requests. 
Do go / do not sj>eak. 

Remember the emphatic forms for different subjects : 

I — and all plural subjects — do rule. 

He, she, it — every singular noun — does rule. 

Thou dost rule. 

I, he, she, it — all plural subjects — did rule. 

Thou didst rule. 

EXERCISE. 

Of the forms of the verb eat which denote continued action, 
write the parts used with all plural nouns and pronouns, making 
we, you, they, men, in turn the subject : — 

We are eating, you were eating, they have been eating, men 
had been eating, we will be eating, etc. 

Change to the corresponding emphatic and negative forms: — I 
tried (did try, did not try). He walks (does walk, does not walk). 
They travelled. You complain. We were entering. I think. 
People talked. Speak. They are working hard. 

Change the verbs to the corresponding forms that denote con- 
tinued action: — I dreamed (was dreaming). He will preach. The 
girls must have played. I do not deceive you. We had discussed 
the point. You might have rolled in wealth. The wind has roared 
all day. They should have studied. 

Write a Composition on The School-House (see engraving, page 
77). (Describe it — the country around — the teacher — the studies — 
the plays at recess. Tell about your own school — vacations — what 
you go to school for — how school may be made pleasant or unpleas- 
ant — whether it is a good thing to have schools.) 



THE USE OF A UXILTARIES. §5 



LESSON LIV. 

Do I trouble you ? Must you leave ? 

Did he answer correctly ? Should she not attend ? 

Have I been dreaming ? Could he not have written ? 

Write the above sentences. What mark follows each? What does 
each express ? What two words would answer these questions ? Under- 
line the auxiliaries. With what kind of word does each sentence com- 
mence? If we place this auxiliary after the subject (I do trouble you — you 
must leave), what will each sentence express, in stead of a question ? 

A question that can be answered by yes or no is often 

formed by commencing a sentence with an auxiliary. 

Each auxiliary has its own significance, and must be 
used accordingly. 

Do not interchange may and can. May implies per- 
mission ; can, ability. A scholar, asking to be dismissed, 
should say, "May (not can) I go?" 

Observe the same distinction in using would and 
should after a verb expressing past time, as in using will 
and shall (page 78). That is, 

To express simple futurity, use should with I and we, 
— would with all other subjects ; as, " I thought we should 
go." "We supposed it would rain." 

To express determination, use would with / and we, 
— shoidd with all other subjects ; as, " We resolved that 
we would stay." " I told you she shoidd wait." 

Auxiliaries are used together in certain connections. 

Thus we say, " I will go, if I can." 

But, " I would go, if I could" 
" I have arranged it so that you may go." 

But, " I had arranged it so that you might go." 
" If you will remain, I may go." 

But, "If you would remain, I might go." 

" If you have determined to stay, I can go." 



gg THE USE OF AUXILIARIES, 

The auxiliary have (and so, of course, hast and has) 
implies past time connected with the present, and mast 
not be used to express past time simply. 

" Saratoga has been long celebrated for its mineral waters ; " not was 
long celebrated, as its celebrity extends up to the present time. " It was the 
scene of important events in the Revolution ; " not has been the scene, as 
past time simply is to be expressed. 

In combining two or more auxiliaries with a parti- 
ciple or verb-root, see that they can all be properly used 
with it, 

" She has walked as far as you can." As you can what ? Can walked, 
for the participle previously used must be supplied. Correct by inserting 
the verb-root, required with can ; " She has walked as far as you can walk." 

E XEECIS E e 

fief erring to the engraving on page 87, torite twelve appropriate 
sentences, expressing questions that can be answered by yes or no. 
Thus :— " Will he catch his brother ? " 

Change the statements in the last paragraph of the Exercise under 
Lesson LIL, page 82, to questions, commencing the sentences icith 
auxiliaries. Thus :— " Was Dacia added," etc. 

Correct errors : — 1. "You can go," said the teacher. 2. They 
would not come unto me, that they may receive my blessing. 3. I 
thought it likely I would see you. 4. I heard that you should leave 
on Monday. 5. Pompeii has been destroyed, 79 a. d., by an erup- 
tion of Vesuvius. 6. There they have been all last week. 7. I 
resolved to work harder than I had ever before. 

8. Can you answer as many questions as I have ? 9. Did they 
not cross the border, and marched rapidly to the north ? 10. Bot- 
any has formerly been studied but little. 11. Steam was a very 
useful servant to man. 12. If she would intercede for me, he may 
grant the favor. 13. I fixed matters so that you may leave. 14. 
She might play, if she wishes. 15. Men may try, even if they 
can not always succeed. 16. I thought we would take passage on 
the Celtic, which has arrived yesterday. 



EXERCISE ON VERBS. 



87 



In the following sentences, relating to the picture, make the sub- 
jects plural, and such other changes as are required in consequence. 
Thus: — 1. In the fireplace logs are burning brightly. 

1. In the fireplace a log is burning brightly. 

2. The old andiron reminds us of times long past. 

3. A shelf may be seen above the antique mantel-piece. 

4. On the wall a handsome picture is hanging. 

5. The hand of the blindfolded boy was extended. 

6. The little girl was standing on tiptoe, watching her brother. 

7. The chair has been removed out of the children's way. 

8. A good boy always likes to play with his sisters. 




Blind-man's-buff. 



Write a Composition on Blind-man's-buff. (Tell how the 
game is played — what danger there is in it — how the players some- 
times cheat. What does the above engraving represent ? Describe 
the room — the fire — the mantel — the walls — the view from the win- 
dow. How many children are there? What are they doing? Who 
is looking on ? Whom do you think the boy will catch ? Why ? 
What kind of a family does it seem to be ?) 



88 PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS AS TO 



LESSON LV. 

Errors are more apt to be made in verbs than in any 
other words. Look at the following : — 

Wrong. 1. A large crop of peaches are expected in Delaware. 

2. Bell's " Travels in Mexico " have been widely read. 

3. He was one of those unfortunates that is always poor. 
Write the above sentences ; let us see why they are wrong. 

What is the subject of Sentence 1 ? Is crop singular or plural ? Is its 
verb, are expected, singular or plural? What, then, should the verb be 
changed to ? Do not make a mistake in the verb, in consequence of its 
being separated from the subject by an intervening noun. 

In Sentence 2, the subject is Travels in Mexico. This is one title — de- 
noting one book — and the verb should be singular, though the noun Travels 
is plural. Correct the sentence. 

In Sentence 3, the subject of is is the pronoun that That stands for 
unfortunates, which is plural. Therefore the subject is plural, and the verb 
should be plural. Correct the sentence. 

Be sure to use a singular form of the verb with a sin- 
gular subject— a plural verb with a plural subject. 



1. Honesty and energy lead to success. 

2. Courage, gentleness, and fidelity, are traits of the mastiff. 

3. To be slandered by the envious and persecuted by the wicked are 
common trials of the good. 

Write the above sentences. Underline the subjects in Sentence 1. By 
what are they connected ? Mention the verb ; is it singular or plural ? — 
Underline the subjects in Sentence 2. By what are they connected ? Men- 
tion the verb ; is it singular or plural ? — In Sentence 3, we have two clauses 
for subjects ; underline them. By what are they connected ? Mention the 
verb in Sentence 3. Is it singular or plural ? 

Two or more singular subjects taken together (whether 
and connects them or is understood) require a plural verb. 

One of the subjects thus taken together may be under- 
stood ; as, " Smith's and Brown's house are alike," — that 
is, Smith's house and Brown's house, 



THE CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. 89 

When the two subjects denote but one person or 
thing, a singular verb is required ; as, " The attorney and 
counsellor next door does a large business." 

EXERCISE. 

Combine in one sentence, making necessary changes in the verb, 
etc. Thus : — 

The zebra is a native of Africa. 

The giraffe is a native of Africa. 

Combined: — The zebra and the giraffe are natives of Africa. 

1. Butter is made from milk. Cheese is made from milk. 

2. Gold is a precious metal. Silver is a precious metal. 

3. Swearing is a repulsive and degrading sin. Lying is a repul- 
sive and degrading sin. Stealing is a repulsive and degrading sin. 

4. Corn does not thrive in cold climates. Cotton does not thrive 
in cold climates. 

5. Mississippi has been and is a great cotton-raising state. Ala- 
bama has been and is a great cotton-raising state. Georgia has 
been and is a great cotton-raising state. 

6. Washington was born in Virginia. Jefferson was born in Vir- 
ginia. Madison was born in Virginia. Monroe was born in Virginia. 

Complete the following : — 1. He and I — . 2. The steamboat 
and the railroad — . 3. Faith, hope, and charity, — . 4. The lion 
and the tiger — . 5. Geography and history — . 6. Iron, copper, 
lead, and tin, — . 7. To relieve the poor and comfort the afflicted — . 

Complete the following, by supplying two or more singular sub- 
jects connected by and: — 1. — wait for no man. 2. As the sun 
rose, — were singing. 3. — do not grow in warm climates. 4. 
Are not — among the chief vices of the day ? 5. — have been 
made states within our recollection. 6. — are imported from 
Europe. 7. What large animals the — are! 

Show why the following sentences are wrong, and correct them: — 
1. A six weeks' trip have quite restored his health. 2. A rosy 
cheek, a good appetite, a robust frame, is among the blessings of a 
country life. 3. Ray, with his friends, were first in the field. 4. 
The remembrance of past joys are always pleasant. 5. The physi- 



90 THE CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS/ 

cian and surgeon whose wife died yesterday were aw r ay at the 
time. 6. " Facts and Fancies," Dr. L.'s new work, are not in 
the library. 7. The u whistling oyster" is one of the greatest 
wonders that has lately appeared. 8. Was you present ? 9. Friend 
after friend depart. 



LESSON LVI. 

1. Rain or snow is sure to set in. 

2. Cass, as well as Webster, was a native of New Hampshire. 

3. Neither Vermont nor Kentucky was among the original states. 

4. Pope, and not Dryden, was the translator of Homer. 

5. Every man and every boy has his mission. 

Write the above sentences. How many subjects in each ? Underline 
them. By what words are the subjects connected ? In the fifth sentence, 
what adjective precedes the subjects connected by and? Are the verbs in 
these sentences singular or plural ? 

Two or more singular subjects taken separately require 
a singular verb. 

Subjects are taken separately, when connected by or, 
nor, hut, as well as, and not, if not — also when preceded 
by each, every, or no. 

" The driver was called, and the children put in the carriage." 
Write the above sentence. What auxiliary is used with the last par- 
ticiple put ? — The omission of the auxiliary before put would be right, if the 
same auxiliary were required with put as with called — that is, was. But, as 
children is plural, was put would be wrong. We must therefore supply the 
proper auxiliary, were — " The driver was called, and the children were put 
in the carriage." 

Do not combine two or more participles with the 
same auxiliary, unless the auxiliary can be correctly used 
with each. 

A singular noun implying a collection of individuals 
(as, army, society, etc.) often takes a plural verb ; as, 
" The jury were all attention." 



EXERCISE ON VERBS. 91 

But, if the individuals are referred to as a whole, the 
verb must be singular; as, " This jury was dismissed." 

EX EECISE, 

Correct errors: — 1. A stage or wagon meet every train. 2. 
Neither the lion nor the tiger are hard beasts to tame. 3. Truth, 
and truth alone, are the object of my search. 4. Do war or conquest 
constitute the whole of a nation's history ? 5. Silk, but not linen or 
muslin, are animal products. 6. Not a word, not a syllable, were 
uttered. 7. The Yellowstone, as well as the Missouri, have been 
explored. 

8. Each hour, each moment, have their duties. 9. In that pro- 
lific clime, no clod, no leaf, no drop of water, are without their 
minute inhabitants. 10. Every fruit, every flower, and every blade 
of grass, testify to the wisdom of the Creator. 11. The walls were 
levelled, and the city destroyed. 12. The avenue has been graded, 
and trees set out. 13. The mob were made up of the dregs of 
Paris. 14. The crowd was glad to hear such sentiments expressed. 

Write a Composition on The Fountain {see engraving, page 49). 
(Describe the fountain — the street in which it stands— the persons 
in the street— what they are doing. Tell what the fountain is for — 
who use it— how it is useful to men and women— how to horses — 
when it is most useful. Have you ever seen a real fountain? — 
where?— describe it— did it add to the beauty of the place?) 



--3C— 



LESSON LVII. 

" He has become rich ; " not, " He is become rich." 

" They Adjust arrived ; " not, " They were just arrived." 

Do not use parts of the verb be as auxiliaries, when 
parts of the verb have are required. 

In conversation, the auxiliary and not following it are 
often contracted. Hence arise such familiar forms* as 



92 CHIEF PARTS OF VERBS. 

arn't, don't, didn't, hasn't, haven't, won't, shan't* etc. In 
writing, avoid these contractions. 

Avoid corrupt forms: such as ain't, for am not, is not, 
or are not ; moughtn't, for might not ; daresn't for dare 
not; had have, for had alone; hadn't ought, for ought 
not ; had as lief, had rather, for ivould as lief, would 
rather ; I'm a mind, for I have a mind, etc. 

It is the Root and the Past Participle of a verb that 
are combined with the auxiliaries to make the compound 
forms. These, therefore, with the Past form of the verb, 
constitute what are called the Chief Parts. 

Regular verbs, for their Past and Past Participle, 
add ed to the root, the changes noted on page 68 hav- 
ing been first made, if necessary. Ask, ask^, ask<?<$, is 
regular. 

But there are many verbs, mostly short and in com- 
mon use, that do not add ed to the root to form these 
parts, and are therefore called Irregular. Be was heen 
is irregular. 

Mistakes in the irregular verbs are very common, par- 
ticularly from interchanging the past form and the past 
participle. Such mistakes can be avoided only by learn- 
ing the Chief Parts of the Irregular Verbs, as pre- 
sented on the next four pages. Each page may consti- 
tute a lesson. 

Simple verbs will serve as models for those formed from them. Be- 
come, for example, goes like come. 

Some verbs, besides their irregular form, have a regular one in ed. 
This is denoted in the Table by the letter R. When two forms are given, 
the preferable one is placed first. Some old forms, not now in good use, 
are omitted. 

# Observe that the apostrophe is used to denote the omission of a letter or letters. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



93 



Boot. 


Past. 


Past Part. 


Root. 


Past. 


Past Part. 




(I. he, we, etc.) 


(Have, had, etc.; 




(I, he, wo, etc.] 


(Have, had, etc.) 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode. 


Burn, 


R., burnt, 


R., burnt. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


Awake, 


awoke, R. 


awoke, R. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Be, 


was, 


been. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Bear ) 

(carry), ) 


bore, 


borne. 


Catch, 


caught, 


caught. 










( chidden, 
( chid. 


-,-v 


J- bore, 




Chide, 


chid, 


.Bear 


born. 






(bring forth) 




Choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


Beat, 


beat, 


\ beaten, 
( beat. 


Cleave ) 

(adhere), ) 


R., clove, 


cleaved. 


Begin, 


began, 


begun. 


Cleave 


j cleft, 
( clove, 


cleft, 


Behold, 


beheld, 


beheld. 


(split), 


cloven, R. 


Bend, 


bent, R., 


bent, R. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Clothe, 


R., clad, 


R., clad. 


Bet, 


bet, R., 


bet, R. 


Come, 


came, 


come. 


Bid, 


bade, bid, 


bidden, bid. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten, bit. 


Crow, 


crew, R., 


crowed. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Blend, 


R., blent, 


R., blent. 


Dare ) 

(venture), ) 






Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


durst, 


dared. 


Break, 


broke, 


broken. 


Deal, 


dealt, 


dealt. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Dig, 


dug, 


dug. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Dive, 


R., dove, 


dived. 


Build, 


built, 


built. 


Do, 


did, 


done. 



EXERCISE. 

Correct the teros: — 1. A great wind having arose, it Mowed 
hard all day. 2. I have forborn from asking you whether you 
done it. 3. Where was Franklin borne? 4. You overdone your 
part. 5. The sermon must have began before you arrove. 6. Pos- 
sibly the connecting-rod may have broke. 7. Have you rebuilded 
your house yet ? 8. Polhemus, having underbidded the others, was 
chose superintendent. 9. If I had known that you come yesterday, 
I would not have forbade the ceremony. 10. You should have 
came before me. 11. I have undid the fastenings. 12. Christmas 
has came again. 



94 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Root. 


Past. 


Past Part. 


Root. 


Past. 


Past Part. 




(I, he, we, etc. 


(Have, had, etc.) 




(I. he, we. etc.) 


(Have, had, etc.) 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


Go, 


went, 


gone. 


Dream, 


K., dreamt, R., dreamt. 


Grind, 


ground, 


ground. 


Drink, 


drank, 


j drunk, 
( drank. 


Grow, 


grew, 


grown. 






Hang, 


hung, R. * 


hung, R.* 


Drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


Have, 


had, 


had. 


Dwell, 


dwelt, R., 


dwelt, R. 


Hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


Eat, 


axe. eax, 


eaten, eat. 


Hew, 


hewed, 


hewn, R. 


Fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hidden, hid. 


Feed, 


fed, 


fed. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Hold, 


held, 


held. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 


Find, 


found, 


found. 


Keep, 


kept, 


kept. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


Kneel, 


knelt, R., 


knelt, R. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


Knit, 


knit, R., 


knit, R. 


Fly, 


flew, 


flown. 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 


Forbear, 


forbore, 


forborne. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


Lead, 


led, 


led. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


Lean, 


R., leant, 


R., leant. 


Get, 


got, 


got, gotten. 


Leave, 


left, 


left. 


Gild, 


R., gilt, 


R., gilt. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


Gird, 


R., girt, 


R., girt. 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


Give, 


gave, 
hung the picl 


given. 


Lie (recline), 


lay, 

The ham w£ 


lain. 


*They 


nres, but hanged 


he murderer. 


is hung up; th< 


prisoner was hanged. Overhang makes o 


verhung only. 










E X. E E 


CI SE. 







Correct the verbs: — 1. I meant to have went to the mill and 
drawed that flour to-day. 2. The horses had ate and drank before 
starting. 3. Some disaster must have befell them. 4. Never 
would he have forsook his friends, had he not been drove to do 
it. 5. Has Joseph and Stephen fell out ? 6. A beetling rock over- 
hanged the precipice. 7. I have always heerd that we must not 
take up what we have not lain down. 8. Being almost froze, he 
laid down. 9. The river having overflown its banks, we lay some 
boards to the shore. 10. Perhaps she may have lien down. 11. 
Where did you lie it ? 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



95 



Root, 


Past. 


Past Part. 


Root. 


Past. 


Past Part. 




(I, he, we, etc.) 


(Have, had, etc.) 




(I, he, we, etc. 


) (Have, had, etc.) 


Light, 


R., lit, 


R., lit. 


Shave, 


shaved, 


R., shaven. 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Shear, 


sheared, 


shorn, R. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Mean, 


meant, 


meant. 


Shine, 


shone, R. 


^ehone, R. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


R., mown. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Show, 


showed, 


shown, R. 


Plead, 


R., pled, 


R., pled. 


Shrink, 


shrunk, 


shrunk. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


Quit, 


quit, R., 


quit, R. 


Sing, 


sung, sang, sung. 


Read, 


read, 


read. 


Sink, 


sunk, sank, sunk. 


Rend, 


rent, 


rent. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


Rid, 


rid, 


rid. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Ride, 


rode, 


ridden, rode. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


Ring, 
Rise, 


rung, rang, 
rose, 


rung, 
risen. 


Slide, 


slid, 


i slidden, 
( slid. 


Run, 


ran, run, 


run. 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


R., sawn. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


Slit, 


slit, R., 


slit, R. 


See, 
Seek, 


saw, 
sought, 


seen, 
sought. 


Smite, 


smote, 


C smitten, 
( smit. 


Sell, 


sold, 


sold. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


R., sown. 


Send, 

Set, 


sent, 
set, 


sent, 
set. 


Speak, 


j spoke, ) 
( spake, ) 


spoken. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Speed, 


sped, R., 


sped, R. 



EXERCISE. 

Correct the verbs : — 1. I knowed he had outgrowed that coat. 
2. We seen the accident. 3. By sundown we shall have rid ten 
miles. 4. Had you been present and saw what I seen, your heart 
would have sank within you. 5. Have Emma or Julia ever sang 
that song before? 6. Are those oxen shoed? 7. Having been 
pretty well shook up by the journey, we slided down from the top 
of the coach. 8. Thus far not a word had been spoke. 9. We (set 
or sat?) by the fountain. 10. We have (set or sat?) things in 
order. 11. I have (set or sat!) there by the hour. 12. He must 
have (set or sat f) the barrel in the sun. 



96 



IRREaUlAR VERBS. 



Root. 


Past. 


Past Part. 


Root. 


Past. 


Past Part. 




(I, he, we, etc. 


(Have, had, etc.) 




(I, he, we, etc. 


) (Have, had, etc.) 


Spend, 
Spill, 


spent, 
R., spilt, 


spent. 
R., spilt. 


Swim, 


( swum, ) 
( swam, ) 


swum. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung. 


Spit, 


spit, 


spit. 


Take, 


took, 


taken. 


Split, 


split, 


split. 


Teach, 


taught, 


taught. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


Spring, 


( sprung, j 
\ sprang, ) 


sprung. 


Tell, 
Think, 


told, 
thought, 


told, 
thought. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Thrive, 


throve, R. 


, thriven, R. 


Stay, 


R., staid, 


R., staid. 


Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


Stick, 
Sting, 


stuck, 
stung, 


stuck, 
stung. 


Tread, 


trod, 


( trodden, 
/ trod. 


Stride, 


j strode, 
( strid, 


stridden, 


Wake, 


R., woke, 


R., woke. 


strid. 


Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


Strike, 


struck, 


j struck, 
( stricken. 


Weave, 
Wed, 


wove, 
R., wed, 


woven. 
R., wed. 


String, 


strung, 


strung. 


Weep, 


wept, 


wept. 


Strive, 


strove, 


striven. 


Wet, 


wet, R., 


wet, R. 


Strow, 


strowed, 


strown, R. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


Swear, 


swore, 


sworn. 


Wind, 


wound, 


wound. 


Sweat, 


sweat, R., 


sweat, R. 


Work, 


R., wrought, R., wrought. 


Sweep, 


swept, 


swept. 


Wring, 


wrung, 


wrung. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


R., swollen. 


Write, 


wrote, 


written. 






E Jl E xi 


CISE. 







Correct the verbs: — 1. Who can believe the yarns spinned by 
old sailors? 2. Trees have sprang up amid the ruins of the village. 
3. Ned has took the bit between his teeth and swam away. 4. She 
wrang out the clothes, and throwed them on the grass. 5. Before 
the page was wrote, the bell had rang. 6. I overheared him say his 
purse was stole. 7. You should have strove more diligently. 8. 
The teacher's patience was quite wore out. 9. He's threw his book 
down. 10. She hain't teached here before. 

Write the three Chief Parts of underbuy ; overcome ; inlay ; 
underlie ; foresee ; understand ; forgive ; mistake ; overthrow. 



A STORY. 



07 




THE INTERRUPTION. 

The Darrow children had a little cart, and a fine large dog which 
they had trained to draw it They would put the two youngest chil- 
dren in the cart, and Helen would push hehind, while Ben and 
Charley would walk alongside, and drive old Major (that was the 
dog's name), as they had seen their father drive the horse 

One day, while they were playing in this way, a strange dog 
suddenly rushed up and showed fight But Major was not a hit 
afraid, and though he was harnessed to the cart he was quite ready 
to defend himself and the children Ben had to hold him back by 
the collar, for fear he would upset the cart; and Charley threw 
stones at the strange dog, till he was frightened and slunk away 
How these children loved Major There is no nobler or more faith- 
ful animal than a brave dog Would not you like a playmate so 
trusty 



Write the above story, inserting the proper point after 
each sentence. 
5 



98 CORRECTION OF 

Write the three Chief Parts of the twenty-one verbs 
that occur in the above story. 

Write the story in your own language, as a Compo- 
sition. 

In the second sentence of the story on the preceding 
page, you see several words enclosed between curves. 
These curves are called Parentheses. They are used to 
enclose words thrown into a sentence by way of expla- 
nation. 

#e 

LESSON LVIII. 

Some common mistakes in verbs must be avoided. 

Do not confound the verbs lay, raise, and set, which 
admit of an object, with the similar verbs lie, eise, and 
sit, which can not take an object. Their chief parts 
should be carefully distinguished : — 

Lay, laid, laid. Lie, lay, lain. 

Eaise, raised, raised. Eise, rose, risen. 

Set, set, set. I Sit, sat, sat. 

We lay a thing down, raise it up, and set it in its place. We lie abed 
when we are sick, but rise as soon as we can sit up. They have raised the 
price ; the price has risen. 

The present participle of die (to expire) is dying ; 
that of dye (to color) is dyeing. The present participle 
of lie, whether signifying to recline or to tell a false- 
hood, is lying. 

Do not use learn for teach, or fall for fell. The 
instructor teaches, the scholar learns. The farmer fells a 
tree ; the tree falls. 

Simple verbs not given in the list on pages 93-96 
are regular. Avoid certain irregular forms sometimes 
improperly used. Thus, 



- dumb 


is a vulgar error. 


■ droicnded 


u 


u u 


■ attach ted 


c< 


a u 


iced. 


a 


u u 


■ het 


i< 


>.. a 


Blessed, 




Dressed, 


Cursed, 




Oppressed, 


Passed, 




Distressed, 



COMMOX ERRORS IN VERBS. 99 

Climb, climbed, climbed - 
Deowx, drowned, drowned- 
Attack, attacked, attacked- 
Weed, weeded, weeded - 
Heat, heated, heated - 

Use the regular forms, 

Smelled, Snapped, 

Spelled, Wrapped, 

Mixed, Tossed, 

in stead of irregular forms in t (smelt, spelt, etc.) some- 
times met with. 

EXERCISE. 

Correct errors (see pages 91, 92): — 1. The icy blasts are depart- 
ed, and spring is come at last. 2. During our absence, the children 
were grown amazingly. 3. Ain't you mistaken? 4. It is mine — I 
shan't give it up. 5. I daresn't speak. 6. Had Cleopatra not have 
fled with her galleys, the fate of Rome might have been different. 
7. You hadn't ought to deceive any one. 8. We had as lief deal 
with you. 

Supply the proper verb: — 1. John came in tired: he (lay or 
laid f) down his books, and then himself — down to take a nap. 
2. The farmer (sets or sits f) out trees in the spring; he — snares 
for rabbits ; he — with his family in the evening. 3. Rents (raised 
or rose?) on the 1st of May; the landlords — them. 4. We (sit or 
set ?) a hen ; the hen — on her nest. 5. On her (dying or dyeing^) 
bed, as it were, she still thought of (dying or dyeing f) her hair. 

Correct errors : — 1. Who learned you to sew? 2. Some people 
have learned others, who have never learned themselves. 3. The 
room was het altogether too much. 4. I once heard of a bear that 
dumb a tree. 5. As we past the house, we wrapt our cloaks about 
our faces, fearing that we should be attackted. 

6. Such measures opprest the poor, and in fact distrest all 
classes in the community. 7. The thread has snapt. 8. Have you 
wed the garden? 9. The boy was drownded. 10. Wine mixt with 
water was past. 11. I'm half a mind to argue that point. 12. 
Blest ! no, to this day they seem curst of Heaven. 



100 THE ADVERB. 



LESSON LIX. 



On page 97 we had a pretty picture of some children 
and their dog ; turn to it. 

The dog was drawing the cart— how ? Slowly, rapidly, etc. 

Helen was pushing the cart —how ? Quietly, nicely, etc. 

The children were riding —how ? Gayly, happily, etc. 

The strange dog rushed up —how ? Suddenly, fiercely, etc. 

Major growled —how? Angrily, loudly, etc. 

Write the above sentences. Answer the question asked by how each 
time, with all the appropriate words you can think of. These words tell 
how the action was performed. They modify verbs. 

In the first sentence, slowly modifies the verb teas drawing. In the 
second, what verb does quietly modify ? What verb does gayly modify ? 
Suddenly? Angrily ?— These words, added to verbs, are called Adverbs. 

A word used to modify a verb is called an Adverb. 

With what two letters do all the adverbs in the above examples end ? 
Write the words that we get by dropping these letters, ly : — 

Slow, rapid, quiet, nice, gay, happy, sudden, etc. Are these words 
nouns ? What are they ? We see, then, that 

Many Adverbs are formed from adjectives by add- 
ing ly. 

The Adverbs in the above examples answer the ques- 
tion, Sow ? They tell the manner in which the act was 
performed, and are therefore called Adverbs of Manner. 
But there are, also, other kinds of adverbs. 

We might ask, When did the dog draw the cart ? Yesterday, to-day, 
then, often, etc. Thus we get Adverbs of Time. 

Where was Helen pushing the cart ? Here, there, hither, thither, behind, 
etc. Thus we get Adverbs of Place. 

How gayly were the children riding? Very gayly, quite gayly, gayly 
enough. Thus we get Adverbs of Degree. 

Did Major growl ? Yes indeed, certainly, doubtless. Thus we get Ad- 
verbs of Affirmation. 

Did Major run away ? No, not he. Thus we get Adverbs of Negation. 



FORMATION OF ADVERBS. 101 

Some very common little words are Adverbs — how, 
now, thus, so, off, far, up, down, while, till, more, most, 
once, twice, etc. 

In the examples thus far given, the Adverbs have 
modified verbs. They are generally used to modify verbs, 
and hence their name — Ad-verhs. But they may also 
modify other words, particularly adjectives and adverbs. 

How happy were the children ? Very happy — exceedingly happy. The 
adverbs very and exceedingly modify the adjective happy. 

How loudly did Major growl ? Quite loudly, very loudly. The adverbs 
quite and very modify the adverb loudly. 

An Adverb is a word expressing manner, time, place, 
degree, etc., and generally used to modify a verb, an ad- 
jective, or another adverb. 

EXERCISE. 

Write the adverbs of manner formed from the following adjec- 
tives:— Pure; sweet; solemn; coy; soft; rough; tender; spor- 
tive; vile; beautiful; musical; handsome. 

Due, True, and their compounds, drop final e before ly. Write 
the adverbs formed from, True (truly); untrue; due; undue. 

Adjectives ending in y preceded by a consonant change final y 
to I before ly. Write the adverbs formed from, Merrv (merrily) ; 
busy; jaunty; pretty; uneasy; funny; mighty; ready; showy; 
lucky; gaudy; petty. 

Adjectives ending in ble drop le before ly. Write the adverbs 
formed from, Able (ably) ; peaceable ; disagreeable ; horrible ; 
ignoble; feeble. 

Write twelve adverbs that occur in the story on 'page 97. 

Supply adverbs:—!. — was the Garden of Eden? 2. She 
writes — , converses — , and conducts herself in all respects — . 3. 
— bells were rung, to keep — evil spirits. 4. A stranger — ap- 
peared ; no one knew — he came, or he intended to remain. 

What thou speak'st, and — beware. 

Of whom, to whom, — , and — . 



102 THE USE OF ADVERBS, 



LESSON LX. 



1. In this place (here) Carthage stood. 

2. Spain was at that time (then) a republic. 

3. She entered the room in a graceful manner (gracefully). 

4. Eugenie dressed with great taste (very tastefully). 

Write the above sentences in the fewest words. What is here equiv- 
alent to ? Then ? Gracefully ? Tastefully ? What are here, then, taste- 
fully, and gracefully ? We find, then, that 

The meaning of several words may be expressed by 
a single adverb. Thus, ttftside-down = with the upper 
part "undermost. 

The adverb there generally means in that place. 
Sometimes, however, it is used merely to introduce a 
sentence ; as, " There flashed across the firmament at this 
time a brilliant bat erratic meteor." — Observe that the 
verb then precedes its subject — -flashed a meteor. 

Be careful, in this case, to use the singular or plural 
form of the verb (when there is a difference of form), ac- 
cording as the subject following is singular or plural ; as, 
There is many a man — but, There are many men. 

A loud song. She sang loud. 

A sweet song. She sang sweetly. 

Loud and sweet, qualifying the noun song, are adjectives. Loud and 
sweetly, modifying the verb sang, are adverbs. The two former describe 
what was sung, the two latter describe the act of singing. Observe that the 
word loud appears as both adjective and adverb ; but, in the other case, 
there is an adjective form sweet, and a distinct adverb form sweetly — which 
must not be interchanged. 

Adverbs must not be used for adjectives, nor adjec- 
tives for adverbs. 

" The now mayor " is wrong, because an adjective should be used with 
the noun mayor, whereas now is an adverb. Say " the present mayor." 
" The weather is remarkable fine." Wrong, because an adverb should be 
used to modify the adjective fine, whereas remarkable is an adjective. Say 
" remarkably fine." 



EXERCISE ON ADVERBS. 103 

Mistakes are sometimes made by using adverbs in 
stead of adjectives, after the verbs look, feel, taste, smelly 
and sound. 

Say, " She looks handsome" not handsomely, — because it is intended to 
describe the subject she, and not to express any particular kind of looking. 
In like manner, say it feels rough (not roughly), tastes bitter, smells sweet, 
sounds pleasant, etc. 

EX ERCISE. 

In the following sentences, substitute adverbs for the words in 
italics: — 1. Bide your time with patience (patiently). 2. Do your 
duty with care and diligence. 3. With firmness and in the most 
courageous manner did the column stand its ground. 4. Children 
should do what they are told icith promptness, in a cheerful man- 
ner, and without saying any thing. 5. From that place a good road 
leads to Milan. G. Without doubt, Japan is at the present time emi- 
nently progressive. 

Correct errors. — 1. There's no snakes in Ireland. 2. There has 
been many failures this spring. 3. There are two years' interest to 
be paid. 4. There was cotton and corn in abundance. 5. There 
were no news of the expedition. 6. Tallow is melted very easy. 
7. It's uncommon warm. 

8. Tobacco tastes nastily. 9. How sweetly those lilies smell! 
10. Do not talk rough to any one; speak pleasant to all. 11. 
Pussy's coat feel's softly. 12. An old friend's voice sounds natu- 
rally. 13. The country looked beautifully. 14. The then governor 
behaved very rude to the new-comers. 



— ^ 



LESSON LXI. 

"The hawk flies high, the skylark flies higher, the eagle flies highest." 
In the above sentence, high, higher, highest, modifying the verb flies, 
are what? They express different degrees. What other class of words 
may be made to express different degrees ? How ? How is the adverb 
high made to express different degrees ? What is this varying of form, to 
denote different degrees, called ? Compare the adverb high. 



104 COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

A few short adverbs are compared, like adjectives, 
by adding er for the comparative, and est for the super- 
lative. Thus : — 



h, higher, 


highest. 


Late, 


later, 


latest. 


r , lower, 


lowest. 


Eaely, 


earlier, 


earliest. 


r, faster, 


fastest. 


Often, 


oftener, 


oftenest 



"We found some adjectives compared irregularly (page 
53). There are, also, adverbs irregular in their compari- 
son, some of which have the same forms as adjectives : — 



Badly, ill, worse, worst. 


Much, 


more, 


most. 


"Well, better, best. 


Fak, 


farther, 


farthest. 


Little, less, least. 


Foeth, 


further, 


furthest. 



More and most, as we have seen (page 52), give the 
simple form of an adjective the force of the comparative 
and superlative. They are also used, with like effect, be- 
fore adverbs — particularly adverbs of manner. 

Adj. Graceful, more graceful, most graceful. 

Adv. Gracefully, more gracefully, most gracefully. 

In using more and most with adverbs, the same prin- 
ciples apply as in the case of adjectives. Referring to 
the similar cases of adjectives on page 55, tell which of 
the following sentences are wrong, and why : — 

Of the two kings, Solomon ruled the more wisely. 
Of the three kings, Solomon ruled the most wisely. 
Solomon ruled more wisely than any other king. 
Solomon ruled the most wisely of the two kings. 
Solomon ruled more wisely than any king. 
Of all other kings, Solomon ruled the most wisely. 
Solomon ruled the most wisely of any king. 

EXERCISE. 

Change the following sentences, so as to express the same idea 
with adverb and verb, in stead of adjective and noun. Thus:— Our 
journey was rapid = We journeyed rapidly. 



EXERCISE ON ADVERBS. 105 

1. His song was sweet. 2. Their conversation had been pleas- 
ant. 3. Our ride to the seaboard will be hasty. 4. Your study 
of the subject must be diligent. 5. Piteous were their cries for 
help. 6. Your play has been too rough. 

Supply adverbs expressing the different degrees: — 1. John be- 
haves well; James behaves better; Jacob behaves the — . 2. Sarah 
rides badly; Susan rides — ; Stella rides — . 3. Anne ruled wise- 
ly ; Elizabeth ruled — ; Victoria rules — . 4. I love my compan- 
ions — , my friends — , my brothers — . 

5. Those boys are all lazy; Henry studies — , Dick studies — , 
Fred studies — . 6. We listened — ; none could have listened — ; 
he noticed that we were listening — . 7. Roses bloom early ; lilacs 
bloom — ; cowslips bloom — . 8. Speak loud; you should speak 
— ; who speaks the — ? 

Correct errors ; — 1. You can read it easier by daylight. 2. Of 
all the other yachts, the Naiad sailed the faster. 3. The banana 
produces the most abundantly of any plant. 4. Of all our other 
cities, Chicago has grown the most rapidly. 5. Great Britain has 
extended her sway more widely than any empire. 6. Patagonia 
extends the furtherest south. 

se 

LESSON LXII. 
In using adverbs, avoid some common errors : — 

Say, Hence, whence, thenceforth, etc. ; not, From hence, from whence, etc. 

For from is implied in the adverb, and should not be repeated. 
Say, Since which (time), from which (place), etc. ; not, Since when, from 

icliere, etc. 
Say, Whether you remain or not, I will go ; not, Whether you remain or no. 

It don't make no difference. 
Don't give nothing. 

These expressions are often used for It makes no dif- 
ference, DonH give any thing. But such use is wrong 
and vulgar. Not to give nothing means to give some- 
thing. Therefore. 



106 POSITION OF ADVERBS. 

If a negation is to be expressed, do not use not with 
another negative. 

Adverbs should stand near the words they modify, 

They generally precede f Very cold, more learned, quite diligent, 
adjectives, \ But, pretty enough. 

and stand after the first f Havin S ^ learned selfdenial - 

., . , They may possibly be mistaken, 

auxiliary in compound^ H e would <*W^ have been left, 
verb-forms. [ y ou ought to be well satisfied, 

Some adverbs precede, and some follow, simple forms 
of the verb. Some may do either; place such where 
they sound the best. Thus : — 

Never deceive. Deceive not. Always tell the truth. 
Tell the truth boldly. Fast flew the foam ; the foam 
flew fast. Listen not to the charmer, charm he ever so 
icisely. 

Place not only, chiefly, mostly, etc., next before the 
word or words they are intended to modify. 

r 1. He not only speaks but writes French. 
Right. \ 2. He speaks not only French but German. 
t 3. They subsist principally on fish. 
t f 4. He not only speaks French but German. 
| 5. They principally subsist on fish. 
In Sentence 1, not only is placed correctly before the verb speaks, which 
it modifies and helps to contrast with the verb writes, following. 

In Sentence 2, not only is placed correctly before the noun French, 
which it helps to contrast with the noun German, following. 

But in Sentence 4, not only is incorrectly placed before the verb speaks, 
as if some other verb were to follow. It is intended, however, to modify 
French, and should therefore stand next to it {not only French but German), 

EXERCISE. 

Complete the following by supplying adverbs : — 1. Two sparrows 
were fighting — for a crumb, when a third came — , and carried it 
— from both. 2. People can find a gold-mine — they choose to 



EXERCISE ON ADVERBS. 107 

dig — for one. 3. Many are — borne to the grave. 4. I laid it 
down — , but — I do not know. 

5. Upon the ice for pastime 
— I slide and late ; 
And — the ponds are frozen, 
How — I skate ! 

Introduce the adverbs in italics in the proper place: — 1. In the 
evening bats are numerous, darting after such insects as they can 
find (very ; swiftly). 2. How the locomotive screams, as it dashes 
along (loudly ; rapidly)! 3. Sophocles died of excessive joy (sud- 
denly). 4. The mariner's compass, in a rude form, was known to 
the ancient Chinese (unquestionably ; icelt). 5. Dr. Kane must 
have found it cold (certainly ; dreadfully). 

Correct errors : — 1. Then came Christmas, since "when the sun 
has not showed himself for an hour. 2. From thence the advent- 
urers climbed to a point from where they had a fine view of the 
ocean. 3. Wearied or no, Pizarro had to advance, 4. He don't 
care nothing for nobody. 5. You mustn't say nothing. 6. I can't 
find it nowhere. 

7. The manufacture of silk originated in China unquestionably. 

8. Nevada not only yields silver but also gold in great abundance. 

9. Wolves are very suspicious always. 10. Tea chiefly comes from 
China and Japan. 11. Bears have been known to ferociously fight 
for their young. 

as 

LESSON LXIII. 

Referring to the engraving on the next page, write a 
Composition on The Stage-Coach. 

(Describe the stage-coach — how many horses? — fast or slow? — 
where are the trunks carried? — where are the passengers? — where 
is it pleasantest to ride? — why? — suppose a shower comes up. In 
what parts of the country do stage-coaches run? Why do they not 
run between large cities? Is it pleasant to travel in them? — why? 
Describe the scene in the engraving — the mountains — the farm-house 
— the commotion occasioned by the stage — the children — the tur- 
keys — the dog.) 



108 



PREPOSITIONS, 




In the pond. From the stream. Of the driver. 

On his hook. During the ride. Upon the top. 

At the horses. Before the stage. To the village. 

Write sixteen sentences, appropriate to the engraving, each con- 
taining one of the ahove expressions ; as, " A man is sitting by the 
door of the farm-house, looking at the stage." 

The words in italics above, called Prepositions, imply different 
relations; by, in the last example, shows the relation between is 
sitting and door. In each sentence just written, underline the words 
between which the preposition shows the relation. 

A Preposition is a word used to show the relation that 
a noun or pronoun bears to some other term in the sen- 
tence. 



PREPOSITIONS.— ADJUNCTS. 109 



LESSON LXIV. 

1. After a storm comes a calm. 

2. For us there was no hope of safety. 

3. School is about to commence. 

4. Without laboring hard you can not succeed. 

Here are four new prepositions ; write them. Find the objects of the 
prepositions, by asking questions with what after them. Thus, in Sentence 1, 
u After what?" " After a storm" — storm is the object of the preposition 
after. What is the object of for ? about? without? We see, then, that 

A preposition may have for its object a noun, a pro- 
ii ouii, an infinitive, or a participle. 

In Sentence 2, what is the object of the preposition for ? What is us? 
Is us a subjective, an objective, or a possessive, form ? Repeat the objec- 
tive forms of the pronouns, page 45. 

A pronoun that is the object of a preposition must be 
in the objective form ; as, Against me, above thee, around 
him, behind her, among us, below them, with whom. 

Many of the prepositions denote relations of time and 
place. Time and place are also denoted by adverbs. But 
there is this difference : a preposition always has an ob- 
ject, while an adverb has not. " The king rode up (prep.) 
the hill." " The king rode up (adv.)." 

The to used before a verb-root to form the infinitive 
is not a preposition, but part of the verb. 

" Over these roaring rapids a bridge has been thrown. " 
What is the object of the preposition over? By what words is rapids 
modified ? The preposition, its object, and the words that modify the ob- 
ject, constitute what is called an Adjunct. Over these roaring rapids is an 
adjunct, and it modifies the verb has been thrown, showing where the bridge 
has been thrown. 

An Adjunct is an expression consisting of a preposition, 
its object, and the words that modify the object. 

The meaning of an adjunct may sometimes be ex- 
pressed by a single word. And this word, if the adjunct 



HO EXERCISE ON PREPOSITIONS. 

modifies a noun, will be an adjective, — -if it modifies a 
verb, an adverb. Thus : — 

A rim of metal = A metallic (adj.) rim. 

A man with gray hair = A (/ray-haired (adj.) man. 

Bathing in salt-water = Salt-water (adj.) bathing. 
They advanced with bravery, in a brave manner. — Bravely (adv.) 
Informer times, almost everybody snuffed. — Formerly (adv.) 

He defended himself without being at all daunted. — Undauntedly (adv.) 

EXERCISE. 

Substitute for each adjunct a single equivalent icord, and mark 
over it adj. if an adjective, — adv., if an adverb : — 

1. A cord of silk; ponies from Canada; people with long 
noses ; the train for New Haven ; the road along the river ; stories 
of interest to all; the bo j with the best temper. 2. It happened by 
accident— by bad luck-^-by good fortune — with advantage to all. 3. 
A residence in the country is preferable. 4. Pray without ceasing. 
5. The Swiss resisted with resolution and success. 

Substitute an equivalent adjunct for each adjective and adverb in 
italics : — 1. A curly -headed lass; fair-complexioned boys ; grave and 
dignified men; golden chains. 2. They saluted each other cour- 
teously but silently. 3. School-books should be bound neatly and 
substantially. 4 t Nowadays boys are educated scientifically. 

Supply prepositions*, and underline the adjuncts: — 1. The flesh 

— the kangaroo is exported — Australia as an article — food. 
2. — Venezuela, candles are manufactured — turtles' eggs and the 
fat — alligators. 3. We rode — sunset, — hills, — fruitful vales, 

— winding streams, — thriving villages, — nothing to annoy us — 
the dust. 



LESSON LXV. 

Pre means before. A preposition {position before) is 
so called because it almost always stands before its object. 
Sometimes, however, the preposition follows its object ; 
as, the world over, — whom T look upon as friends. 



CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS. • \\\ 

An adjunct must stand near the word it is intended 
to modify. "A young lady was playing on the piano 
with auburn hair." Did the auburn hair belong to the 
young lady or the piano ? Put the adjunct in its right 
place. 

" I do not wish for any." " I will consider of it." 

We often hear such expressions, but they are wrong. Wish and con- 
sider are verbs that take objects themselves ; omit the prepositions, there- 
fore, before the objects. " I do not wish any," " I will consider it." 

Do not introduce a preposition, to take for its object 
what is really the object of a verb. 

So, it generally sounds ill to combine a verb and prep- 
osition with the same object ; as, " Showers seldom moist- 
en, in fact they are almost unknown on, these great 
plains." Vary the expression : " Showers are seldom if 
ever (or seldom or never) known on these great plains." 

Appropriate prepositions must be used. Thus, say 

Different from, not to. Adapted to, not for. 
Attended, accompanied, by that which has life (friends, etc.). 
" with things without life (results, etc.). 

We compare one thing with another, as regards quality or quantity ; we 
compare one thing to another, for the sake of illustration. 

A thing is divided between two persons, among more than two. 

EXERCISE. 

Write sentences containing the following, and remember the prep- 
ositions to be used in connection with the given words : — 

Accuse of. Confide in. Prefer to. 

Arrive in or at. Deprive of. Sympathize with. 

Bestow on. Dislike to. Weary of. 

Introduce the adjuncts properly: — 1. Milo, by lifting a calf 
every day till it grew up, was able to lift an ox (of Crotona—in the 
end). 2. Two women were kneading dough, and two others were 
making butter (in large troughs— with glass eyes — with gray hair). 
3. Tulips were first brought from Constantinople (in 1559 — fo west- 



112 • EXERCISE ON PREPOSITIONS. 

em Europe). The plant was in great demand, and extravagant 
sums were paid (in a few years — in Germany and Holland— for 
choice varieties)* A thousand dollars was no unusual price ; and 
a trader of Haarlem was actually known to give half his fortune 
(for a rare oulb — in one case— for a single root). 

Correct errors: — 1. Between you and I, he knows very little, 
compared to his father. 2. Dr Johnson who people generally speak 
of as a great critic was biassed in some of his judgments. 3. Who 
did you bow to ? 4. That hint must have been intended for you 
and she. 5. The ball penetrated in the left lung, 6. We can all 
recollect of doing things that we regret. 7. By writing of compo- 
sitions, we learn to write fluently. 

8. Imagine of Cicero wearing a swallow -tailed coat and a high 
hat. 9. Mrs. Griggs had five daughters, and divided her property 
between them. 10. Our present school-books are quite different to 
those of old times, and better adapted for the young; they are often 
accompanied by illustrations. 11. Lord bacon was accused with 
receiving bribes. 12. Pharaoh was overwhelmed by shame. Pha- 
raoh's host w^as overwhelmed with the waves. 

ie 

LESSON LXVI. 

KEEP TO THE RIGHT. 

Keep to the right, as the law directs, 

For such is the rule of the road ; 
Keep to the right, whoever expects 

Securely to carry life's load. 

Keep to the right, with God's word for your guide ; 

Nor wander, though folly allure ; 
Keep to the right, and turn never aside 

From what's holy, and faithful, and pure. 

Keep to the right in whatever you do, 

And claim but your own on the way ; 
Keep to the right, and hold on to the true, 

From the morn to the close of life's day. 



THE CONJUNCTION. 113 

Copy the preceding lines. Underline each adjunct; put tiro 
lines under each preposition, and adv. over each adverb. 
With what kind of letter does each of the above lines begin ? 
Commence with a capital every line of poetry. 

Look at the first verse. What do you observe with 
respect to the sounds that the first and the third line end 
with I With respect to the second and the fourth line ? 
This is called Rhyming. 

Which lines in the second verse rhyme ? Which in the third verse ? 
The following words, if arranged properly, will make a fourth verse, 
rhyming like the other three. See whether you can so arrange them. 

Keep to the right without and within, with friend, and kindred, 
and stranger ; keep to the right, and no doubt need you have that 
in the end all will be well. 



Write a Composition in prose on Keep to the Right 
(When this sign is put up on a bridge, what does it mean ? 
What is gained by keeping to the right ? Apply it practically. 
What is meant by keeping to the right in life? How may a boy 
or girl keep to the right? — a man or woman? — a merchant? — a 
farmer? — a professional man? What teaches us how to keep to 
the right ?) 



LESSON LXVII. 

" Yet Alexander, if we may believe history, loved candor and truth." 
What connects the words candor and truth ? What word connects the 
clause ice may believe history with the rest of the sentence ? What word 
connects the whole sentence with what goes before ? Here, then, we have 
some words — yet, if, and — whose office is to connect. Such words are 
called Conjunctions. 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, sen- 
tences, or parts of a sentence. 

The parts of a 'sentence connected by a conjunction 
may be of equal rank ; they are then called Members. 



1 14 MEMBERS.— CLA USES. 

" Cast thy bread upon the waters ; for thou shalt find it 
after many days" — two members connected hy for. 

Or one of the parts so connected, while it has its own 
subject and verb, may be subordinate to the other; as, 
" I know that justice will prevail. Such a division is 
called a Clause. 

Examples. — "Either Washington or Lafayette might have turned the 
tide; but neither was there." Are the divisions connected by the conjunc- 
tion but, clauses or members ? What do either and or connect ? 

" Although (though) neither oxygen nor hydrogen is a liquid, yet together 
they form water." Is the division introduced by the conjunction although, 
a clause or a member ? What do the conjunctions neither and nor connect ? 

Members of a sentence are generally separated by the 
semicolon ; clauses are, for the most part, set off by the 
comma. See examples above. 

Sometimes two or more words are used together as a 
connective, and thus have the force of a conjunction ; as, 

inasmuch as, as well, notwithstanding that, as if, 

forasmuch as, as well as, except that, as though. 

Subjects connected by and, as we have seen, take a 
verb and pronoun in the plural ; as, " Honesty and tem- 
perance have their reward." 

Subjects connected by or, nor, or as well as, take a 
verb and pronoun in the singular ; as, " Honesty, as well 
as temperance, has its reward." 

If it be he. Though he slay me. 

If he were I. Beware lest thou fall. 

If thou loved me. See that thou have no fear. 

Unless thou go. Whether I be well or ill. 

Observe these forms. In certain clauses introduced 
by the conjunctions if, unless, though, lest, that, whether, 
we find he and were used with all subjects, and the pres- 
ent and past of other verbs unchanged with thou and he. 



EXERCISE ON CONJUNCTIONS. 115 

EXERCISE. 

Select the conjunctions, and state whether they connect words, 
sentences, or parts of a sentence: — 1. Nevertheless, both painters 
and sculptors go to Rome, that they may study in its art-galleries. 

2. Whereas some regard Cromwell as having been just and upright, 
others have looked upon him as a greater tyrant than the Stuarts. 

3. Notwithstanding they were in manuscript, books were formerly 
more prized than at present, because they were scarce. 4. The act 
will become a law, provided the governor signs it. 

Supply the proper conjunctions : — 1. — dead, he yet liveth. 2. 
Charles XII. acted — he were mad. 3. See — you carve out 
your own fortune, — you would have any. 4. — the ruby — the 
diamond are more valuable — the emerald. 5. — Wellington — 
Blticher was singly a match for Napoleon ; — together they over- 
threw him, — shaped the destinies of Europe. 6. Amerigo Ves- 
pucci, — Americus Vespucius, was a Florentine, — I am mistaken. 



LESSON LXVIII. 

A word or clause having common connection with 
two words or clauses joined by a conjunction, must be 
adapted to each. 

"Europe is more populous, but not so large, (than or as?) America." 
XeUher than nor as suits both the preceding expressions, for we can not 
properly say so large than nor more populous as. Correct thus : " Europe 
is more populous than America, but not so large." 

Avoid some common errors in the use of conjunc- 
tions. Thus, we should say, 

See whether you can do it — not if. 
I have no doubt that he went — not tut or hut that. 
He said that the sap was running — not as how. 
She has no other home than this — not ~but this. 
Csesar could not do otherwise than advance — not but. 
It looks as if it would rain — not as though. 



116 EXERCISE ON CONJUNCTIONS. 

The comma is used to set off, 

1. Very short members ; as, " I came, I saw, I con- 
quered." Also, clauses introduced by a conjunction, un- 
less the connection is too close for any point ; see Sen- 
tences 1-4 at the commencement of the last Exercise. 

2. Each of a series of words of the same class; as, 
" Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth, were children of 
Henry VIII." With only two w T ords connected by a 
conjunction, use no comma ; as, " Mary and Elizabeth 
were children of Henry VIII." 

3. An equivalent introduced by or ; as, "Platinum, 
or platina, is one of the heaviest metals." 

4. Pairs of words connected by a conjunction ; as, 
" Snow and hail, mist and steam, are but water in differ- 
ent forms." 

EXERCISE, 

Make a list of all the conjunctions you can think of. 
With the aid of conjunctions, form one sentence out of each 
group. Thus: — 1. The moon has neither water nor atmosphere. 

1. The moon has no water. The moon has no atmosphere. 

2. Forbidden pleasures are loved at first. Forbidden pleasures 
in the end become distasteful. 

3. The fox seeks its prey alone. The pole-cat seeks its prey 
alone. "Wolves hunt in packs. Wild dogs hunt in packs. 

4. The Guinea-pig has an inappropriate name. It is not a pig. 
It does not come from Guinea. It comes from South America. 

5. Many things are prized, not on account of any merit they 
possess. Many things are prized because they are rare. Many 
things are prized because they are fashionable. 

6. Mercury is nearer to the sun than the earth is. So is Yenus. 
Mars is farther from the sun than the earth is. So is Jupiter. So 
is Saturn. So is Uranus ; Uranus is otherwise called Herschel. So 
is Neptune. 

Correct errors: — 1. Dress, as well as fashion, number their 
votaries by thousands. 2. If I was you, I would lay down. 3. If 



THE INTERJECTION. H7 

advice was gold, we would have less of it. 4. Though she causes 
my death, I will never forsake her. 5. Take care that thou doest 
it well. 6. Dryden is not equal, nor to be compared, to Milton. 

7. Amiability is longer-lived and preferable (than or to f) beauty. 

8. I doubt if any other but Washington could have brought the war 
to a successful issue. 9. Live as though you would die to-morrow. 
10. Did you say as how he had tried if he could lift it? 11. Doubt 
not but that virtue will have its reward. 

Insert the semicolon and comma : — I almost killed the bird, said 
the fowler but Almost never made a stew. 2. A man is never alone 
for God is with him. 3. Wit entertains but wisdom delights. 4. 
Lakes and rivers hills and plains mountains and valleys all are beau- 
tiful. 5. Gold silver platinum and copper have been used for coin- 
ing. 6. New Holland or Australia is a land of wonders. 7. Away 
they went, pell-mell hurry-skurry with clang and clatter whoop 
and halloo. 

Labor and faith and prayer are worth 
More than the richest stores of earth. 



LESSON LXIX. 

Hurrah I the day is ours. A las ! Sorrow and I are wed. 

Hallo ! who is there ? Adieu ! peace be with thee. 

Here we have a new class of words — hurrah ! alas ! hallo ! adieu ! — 
expressing strong feeling. What feeling does alas express ? What feeling 
does hurrah express ? Are they connected with other words in construc- 
tion ? Such words are called Interjections. What point follows each 
of the interjections used above ? 

An Interjection is a word not connected in construction 
with other words, but used to express some strong or sud- 
den feeling* 

The principal Interjections, arranged according to the feelings they ex- 
press, are as follows : — . 

1. Exultation. Ah! aha! hey! heyday! hurrah! huzza! 

2. Sorrow. Ah ! oh ! alas ! alack ! lackaday ! welladay ! 

3. Wonder. Ha ! indeed ! strange ! what ! hoity-toity ! zounds ! 



118 INTERJECTIONS. 

4. Approval. Bravo ! well done ! 

5. Contempt, aversion. Faugh ! fie ! fudge ! pugh ! pshaw ! tut ! 

6. Weariness. Heigh-ho ! 

7. Merriment. Ha, ha, ha ! (an imitation of the sound of laughter). 

8. Desire to drive away. Aroynt ! avaunt ! begone! off! shoo! 

9. Desire to address or salute. 0, hail ! all-hail ! welcome ! 

10. Desire for one's welfare on leaving. Adieu ! farewell ! good-by ! 

11. Desire for attention. Ho! what ho ! hallo! ahoy! lo! hark! 

12. Desire for silence. Hist! whist! hush! mum! 

13. Desire to stop or interrupt another. Avast ! hold ! soft ! 

14. Desire for information. Eh? hey? 

Most interjections are followed by the exclamation- 
point, as in the above list. Eh and hey, implying ques- 
tions, are followed by the interrogation-point; as, "You 
like this, hey ? " 

0, always a capital, is used in addressing, and is not 
generally followed by the exclamation-point ; as, " Whither, 
O Justice, hast thou departed ? " 

EXERCISE. 

Supply appropriate interjections, and such points as are needed: 
— 1. — Babylon has fallen 2. There goes the bell. — who can 
be coming at this time of night 3. — wbat noise was that 4. — 
why should the spirit of mortal be proud 5. Bless us, — Peace, 
with thy all-radiant smile 6. — I am tired out 7. Sweet hope, 
— henceforth my days are sad 8. You avoid me, — ? 9. Not 
ready for breakfast yet ! — 

Write fourteen sentences, expressing in turn the feelings of exul- 
tation, sorrow, etc., mentioned above, and into each introduce appro- 
priately one of the interjections in the list. 

Questions* — What words are names ? Ans. Nouns. What words 
affirm an action or state ? What words describe or limit the meaning of 
nouns ? What words modify verbs ? What words connect ? What words 
are used in stead of nouns ? What words are exclamations, expressing 
sudden feeling ? What words denote relations of time, place, etc. ? What 
words have singular and plural forms ? What words are compared ? What 
classes of words are never changed at all ? 



CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 119 

LESSON LXX. 

In the preceding Lessons we have met with several 
different classes of words, — not equally important, but 
all sometimes used in the expression of thought. 

The Verb is indispensable in every sentence ; a Noun 
or Pronoun is its usual subject. This noun or pronoun 
may have an Adjective to modify it, and a Preposition 
to express its relation to other terms. The verb may be 
modified by an Adverb. When words or sentences need 
to be connected, the Conjunction comes into play ; and 
exclamations are made with the Interjection. 

How many classes of words, then, have we found ? 
To these some add a ninth class, called Articles, contain- 
ing only the little words the and an or a, which may 
be briefly defined as noun-limiters. 

Others prefer calling the and an or a adjectives. 
The teacher will direct what these words shall be called. 

Words are classed as nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc., ac- 
cording to their use in a given- sentence. Before we can 
tell what a word is, we must see how it is used. 

The same word, for example, in different sentences, 
may be a noun, a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. Thus : — 

A fast {noun — why?) was kept. He drives fast (adj. — ichy?) horses. 

I was told to fast (verb — why ?). Drive fast {adv. — why ?). 

Again, the same word may appear as preposition, ad- 
verb, adjective, and noun ; as, 

They walked past the house. They walked past. Past sorrows are 
soon forgotten. The sorrows of the jjast are forgotten. (What is past in 
each of these sentences, and why ?) 

Or as adverb and conjunction. " Go as fast as you 
can ; " the first as is an adverb, the second a conjunction. 



120 



A LITTLE POEM. 




"LETTING THE OLD CAT DIE." 

Not long ago, in an orchard's shade, 

Where children were at play, 
I heard some words from a youngster's lips 

That stopped me on my way. 

"Now let the old cat die ! " he cried. 

I saw him give a push, 
Then quiet stand, as he suddenly spied 

My face peep o'er the hush. 

But what he pushed, or where it went, 

I couldn't well make out, 
On account of the thicket of bending houghs 

That bordered the place about. 

"The little villain has stoned a cat, 

Or hung it upon a limb, 
And left it to die all alone," I said; 

"But I'll play the mischief with him." 



N EXERCISE ON WORDS. 121 

I forced my way between the boughs, 

The poor old cat to seek ; 
And what did I find but a swinging child, 

With her bright hair brushing her cheek ? 

Her bright hair floated to and fro, 

Her little red dress flashed by ; 
But the liveliest thing of all, I thought, 

"Was the gleam of her laughing eye. 

"Steady! I'll send you up, my child ! ' 

But she stopped me with a cry ; 
"Go 'way! go 'way! don't touch me, please — 

I'm letting the old cat die ! " 

" You're letting him die ! " I cried aghast ; 

" Why, where's the cat, my dear ? " 
And lo ! the laughter that rang around 

Was a thing for the birds to hear. 

" Why don't you know," said the little maid — 

The flitting, beautiful, elf — 
" That we call it letting the old cat die, 

When the swing stops of itself? "' 

Then swaying, and swinging, and glancing back, 

With the merriest light in her eye, 
She bade me good-day, and I left her alone, 

" Letting the old cat die." 

Exercise, — Which lines of the above verses rhyme? How does 
each line commence ? Show where and why quotation-points, periods, in- 
terrogation-points, and exclamation-points, are used in the poem. Arrange 
the following words to make a verse like the above : " With the rose-light 
in her face, swinging back and forth and swaying, like a bird and a flower 
in one she seemed, and her native place the forest." 

Tell what each word in the poem is — beginning, Not is an adverb. 

Going through the poem again, write in separate lists, 

1. Such plural forms of nouns as occur (children, words, etc.). 

2. The possessive forms of nouns and pronouns (orchard's, etc.). 

3. The verbs in the past form (were, etc.). 4. The infinitives. 

6 



122 



A SYNOPTICAL REVIEW, 



LESSON LXXI. 

A tteview of what has been learned is now necessary. 
Let each pupil take a topic from the synopsis below, write 
the heads on the black-board, and tell all that he knows 
about them without being questioned. 

f I. Definition — " The expression of thought." 

Language. -| f 1. Spoken. 1 

a & j II. Kinds, low •++ [ Both consist of Sentences. 



Sentences, 



Words. 



Nouns. 



I. Definition — " The expression of a complete thought." 

1. Statements. 

2. Commands. 

3. Questions. 

4. Exclamations. 



II. Classes. 



Commence with what ? 
>■ Followed by what 
points, respectively ? 



f I. Definition — " The signs of ideas." 

I _ f 1. Yowels. } Define and 

*{ II. Made up of Letters, i a ^ . Y ,, 

1 [2. Consonants. J name them. 

I III. Classes— eight (including Articles, nine) : name them. 



I. Definition. 
II. Classes 



■tt 



III. Forms. 



3. 



Common — define. 
Proper — define — commence how ? 
Singular — denote what ? 
Plural — denote what ? 

a. Plural, how formed regularly ? 

b. Irregular plural forms. 

c. Foreign plurals. 
Masculine — denote what ? 

4. Feminine — denote what? Formed, 

a. By terminations — what ? 

b. By prefixing words — what ? 

c. By using different words. 

5. Subjective — for subject.! ._ . 

6. Objective — for object. J 

7. Possessive — denote what? Formed how, 

a. In the singular ? 

b. In the plural ? 



A SYNOPTICAL REVIEW. 



123 



Pronouns. 



Verbs. 



Adverbs. 



Prepositions. 

Conjunctions. 
Interjections. 



I. Definition. 



II. Forms. - 



1. Singular — name some. ~| Depend on 

2. Plural — name some. ! the noun 

3. Masculine — name them. for which 

4. Feminine — name them. J they stand. 

5. Subjective — mention them. ^ 

6. Objective— mention them, y denote 

7. Possessive — mention them. J w a • 



I. Definition. 



Adjectives. -{ 



IL-Classes. 1 



III. Comparison 



r 



1. Proper— how formed? commence how? 

2. The, ax, a, by many made a ninth 
class of words, Articles. 

a. A?i, when to be used. 

b. A, when to be used. 
Regular — what terminations ? 

Changes sometimes required. 
I 2. Irregular. 

I. Definition. 
II. Verb-root — infinitive — how used ? 

{1. Definition. 
2. Formation. 

r 1. Present. ^ 
o p + I What thev respectively 

V- F ° rmS - 1 I Futre. i d - te - ' 

I 4. Compound forms — how made ? 
V. Auxiliaries — define — name — how varied ? 
VI. Chief Parts— what -why so called ? 
VII. Regular and Irregular — examples. 

I. Definition. 
II. Classes — according to signification. 

{1. Regular. 
o T l 

2. Irregular. 

^ IV. Position in the sentence. 
C I. Definition. 
I II. Adjunct, i 2 

. . . Defined. — List of principal conjunctions. 
. . . Defined. — List of principal interjections. 



What it is. 

Position in the sentence. 



124 RULES FOR CAPITALS. 

EXERCISE. 

Tell what each word is. Thus: The is an adjective (or article) ; 
ladies is a noun, etc. 

1. The ladies held a fair in the building beside the cliurch. 2. 
Besides being warm, it bids fair to be clear. 3. Besides, rest 
assured that we shall have a fair day. 4. As calm follows storm, 
so the rest of the grave follows the excitement of life. 5. So the 
water is calm, I shall have no fear. 6. Calm yourself, my friend, 
and fear not. 7. Man wants but little here below, nor wants that 
little long. 8. I told you that the little bird that you saw on that 
long branch was a wren. 

Write a story about The Swing, referring to the engraving on 
page 120. (Tell about the children going to the orchard to play — 
describe the scene — what they are doing — how the swing was put 
up — taking turns at swinging — how they were interrupted — the old 
gentleman's mistake — how he felt when he found out his mistake — 
what the children said and did.) 



LESSON LXXII. 

Hules for Capital Letters have been interspersed in 
the preceding Lessons. They are now presented all to- 
gether, by way of review. Where capitals are not required 
by these rules, use small letters. 

Begin with a Capital, 

I. Every sentence, and every line of poetry. 

II. Proper nouns, proper adjectives, and titles of of- 
fice, honor, and respect, used with proper names. 

As, the Honorable Peter Doane, Member of Congress from Maryland ; 
Samuel Sherwood, Esq. — Write these examples, and those that follow in 
this Lesson, on the black-board, and tell why each capital is used : — Thus, 
Honorable commences with a capital, because it is a title pf honor ; Peter 
Doane^ because it is a proper noun ; Member, because it is a title of office, 
etc. 



RULES FOR CAPITALS, 125 

Under this rule fall also adjectives denoting religious bodies ; as, a Bap- 
tist church, an Episcopal seminary. 

III. Common nouns personified in a lively manner ; 
as, " Fair Health lias scattered roses o'er their cheeks." 

IV. Appellations of the Deity; as, the Almighty, 
the Supreme Being, Providence. 

V. The first word of a complete quoted sentence, not 
introduced by that or any other conjunction. 

A sentence cited in some other person's words is said to be quoted. 
Observe the different ways of introducing such a sentence. 1. Watts says, 
" Life's a long tragedy." (Capital, comma.) 2. Watts says that "life's 
a long tragedy." (No capital, no comma — but quotation-points in both 
cases.) 

YI. The first word, and every noun, adjective, and 
verb, in the titles of books and headings of compositions, 
chapters, sections, 1 etc. ; as, Have you read " What a 
Blind Man Saw in Europe " ? 

VII. A word defined, or denoting the special subject 
of an article or paragraph. Find examples in this book. 

VIII. The pronoun Zand the interjection O. 

IX. Words denoting great events, eras, or institu 
tions, noted written instruments, etc. ; as, the Revolu- 
tionary War, the Feudal System, the Constitution of the 
United States. 

X. Single letters standing for words ; as, A. M. (mas- 
ter of arts), P. O. (post-office). 

EXERCISE. 

Correct errors : — 1. Alfred the great was the most distinguished 
of the saxon Kings of england. 2. chilo of lacedaemon, embracing 
his Son who had taken a prize at the Olympic games, died in 
his arms from Joy. 3. i have read in sir F. Jackson's Work 
entitled "gleanings of an antiquary" that one of the important 
Questions discussed by the schoolmen of the middle ages was, how 



126 ANALYSIS OF SENl'ENCES. 

many Angels can stand on the Point of a Needle? 4. michae! 
angelo, at seventy years of age, said still am i learning. 5. an afri- 
ean proverb says that, It is easy to cut up a dead Elephant. 6. The 
magna charta was signed by king John. 7. address a letter to the 
rev. A. b. coe, d. d., bnrton, illinois. 8. aim not, o ]ove, thy un- 
erring shaft at my Heart. 9. Frederick the great of prussia, march- 
ing into saxony, commenced the seven years' war. 
10. Maker, preserver, my redeemer, god, 

whom have i in the Heavens but thee alone! 



LESSON LXXIII. 

Analyzing Sentences is resolving them into their 
parts. We did something of this on page 14, but now 
we are prepared to do it more systematically. 

The Subject of a sentence has already been defined as 
the leading word denoting that about which something 
is said. Select the subjects of the first six sentences in 
the last Exercise. 

When we say " the leading word" we mean a noun 
or pronoun, which is the usual subject. But the subject 
may also be an infinitive or a clause ; as, 

To die for one's country is glorious. 

Whether Homer ever lived, has been disputed. 

" Certain tribes in Africa, lacking better food, eat white ants." 
Tribes is the subject. It is modified by the adjective certain the ad- 
junct in Africa, and the participial clause lacking better food. 

The subject of a sentence may be modified by an ad- 
jective, an adjunct, or a clause, — or by all three. The 
subject and its modifiers form what is called the Logical 
Subject; and the rest of the sentence is the Predicate. 

Logical Subject : Certain tribes in Africa, lacking better food. 
Predicate : Eat white ants. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 127 

Each Member of a Compound Sentence has its own 
subject, logical subject, and predicate. 

" One generation blows bubbles, and another bursts them." 
This is a compound sentence of two members, connected by the con- 
junction and. The subject of the first member is generation; logical sub- 
ject, one generation ; predicate, blows bubbles. The subject of the second 
member is another ; predicate, bursts them ; there is no distinct logical sub- 
ject, as the subject has no modifiers. 

E X E.R C I S E . 

Analyze into subject, logical subject, and predicate, the first six 
sentences in the last Exercise. 

Analyze the following compound sentences, according to the exam- 
ple at the top of the page : — 1. A merry heart maketh a cheerful 
countenance; but by sorrow of the heart the spirit is broken. 2. 
Newfoundland dogs often save persons from drowning; and the 
noble animals of the St. Bernard breed have rescued many a trav- 
eller lost in Alpine snows. 3. The Chinese, particularly such as 
live in and near the great cities, eat almost every living creature 
that comes in their way; dogs, cats, hawks, owls, and eagles, are 
regular marketable commodities. 

Write a Composition on Winter Amusements, referring to the 
engraving on page 17. (Describe the scene — how the trees look in 
winter — the fields — the roads — the ponds — the streams. Tell how 
people have to dress when they go out — how they keep warm in- 
doors. How they amuse themselves in-doors, how out-of-doors. 
Sleighing, sliding, skating, riding down-hill — which do you like 
best? What accidents sometimes happen? What do you see in 
the picture ?) 



LESSON LXXIV. 

1. Cain and Abel were sons of Adam. 

2. Cain was a son of Adam, and lived for a time in Eden. 

3. Cain and Abel were sons of Adam, and lived in Eden. 

What is the logical subject of Sentence 1 ? Of what does it consist? 
What is the predicate of Sentence 2 ? Of how many parts does it consist ? 



128 CLAUSES.— VOCATIVE EXPRESSIONS. 

Mention the subject and predicate of Sentence 3. Of how many parts does 
each consist ? 

A sentence may have a Compound Subject — that is, 
two or more subjects connected by a conjunction or not ; 
or a Compound Predicate, consisting of two or more parts 
of equal rank ; or both. Write examples of each. 

The subject is sometimes understood ; as, " Aim (thou) 
high." So, a verb or other words may be understood in 
op.e of the members of a compound sentence ; as, " In 
science reason is the guide ; in poetry, taste (is the guide)" 
Analyze this example, and write a similar one. 

From the Members of a sentence, which are of equal 
rank, must be distinguished Clauses, which are subordinate 
divisions, generally used to modify some leading word. 

Examples of the principal kinds of clauses follow. 
Write the sentences from dictation, underline the clauses, 
and place two lines under the predicates. 

1. Whether Mohammed was an impostor is the question before us. 

This clause, used as a subject, performs the part of a noun. 

2. Many wish the tree felled, who hope to gather its chips. 

This clause introduces an additional statement with who. 

3. Abandoning hope, Burgoyne at length surrendered. 

This participial clause contains the participle abandoning. 

4. Wherever a man goes, his character goes with him. 

This clause has the force of an adverb, expressing place. 

5. Laws are made, to protect the community. 

This clause expresses the end or purpose. 

6. There are none so deaf as those that will not hear. 

Contains the latter of two terms compared, introduced by as. 

7. If the sky falls, we shall catch larks. 

Introduced by the conjunction if and expresses a supposition. 

A Vocative Expression consists of a noun or pronoun 
denoting an object addressed, thrown into a sentence with 
its modifiers, independently of other words ; as, " Lib- 
erty ', what crimes are committed in thy name ! " 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 129 

EXERCISE. 

Select the subject, logical subject, and predicate — adjuncts, 
clauses, and vocative expressions: — 1. Whether the lion deserves to 
be called the king of beasts, has by some been questioned. 2. 
Abandoned by the Romans, the Britons could not withstand the 
inroads of the Picts and Scots. 3. So carefully is Belgium cultivated 
that the whole country may be called a garden. 4. If you let me 
make the ballads of a nation, I care not who makes its laws. 5. In- 
dustry and perseverance will in most cases attain their object and 
secure ultimate success. 

6. conscience, conscience! man's most faithful friend, 
Him canst thou comfort, ease, relieve, defend. 

Treat in like manner the sentences in the Exercise on page 115. 

Write seven sentences containing clauses; see examples on the 
last page. 

se ; 

LESSON LXXV. 

The subject, and the leading verb of the predicate, 
constitute two Principal Parts, which must appear in every 
sentence and in each member of a compound sentence ; 
as, Boys study. 

A third Principal Part sometimes appears in the pred- 
icate, 1, As the object of the leading verb ; Boys study 
their lessons. 2. As a noun, or its equivalent, used after 
a verb which takes no object ; Boys hecome men. 3. As 
an adjective so used ; Those hoys are studious. 

To analyze a, sentence fully, tell what it expresses ; 
mention its principal parts ; tell by what words, adjuncts, 
or clauses, each is modified, and by what modifiers, if any, 
these are themselves modified. If the sentence is com- 
pound* treat each member in turn as just described. — 
Examples follow. 



130 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

1. The Russians surpass all other nations in one 
thing at least — the size of their hells. 

This sentence expresses a statement. Principal parts, the subject Rus- 
sians, the leading verb surpass, and the object nations. 

The subject is modified by the adjective (article) the. — The leading verb 
surpass is modified by the adjunct in one thing, whose noun thing is modi- 
fied by the adjective one (itself modified by the adjunct at least) and the 
apposition-noun size, modified by the adjective (article) the and the adjunct 
of their bells. — The object nations is modified by the adjectives all and other. 

2. The man that hath not music in himself 
Is fit for treason, stratagems, and spoils. 

This sentence expresses a statement. Principal parts, the subject man, 
the leading verb is, and the predicate adjective^. 

The subject is modified by the adjective (article) the, and the clause 
that hath not music in himself. The principal parts of this clause are its 
subject that, — its leading verb hath, modified by the adverb not and the ad- 
junct in himself, — and its object music. 

The predicate adjective^ is modified by the adjunct for treason, strata- 
gems, and spoils. 

3. Autumn, hright with thy robe of many colors, 
. how can they call thee sad ? 

This sentence expresses a question. Principal parts, the subject they, 
the leading verb can call (modified by the adverb how), and the object thee 
(modified by the adjective sad). 

O Autumn, bright with thy robe of many colors, is a vocative expres- 
sion, containing Autumn, the name of the object addressed, modified by the 
adjective bright, which is itself modified by the adjunct with thy robe, — whose 
noun robe is modified by the adjunct of many colors. 

4. " The Bedouins of Mesopotamia" says a recent 
writer, "when about to set out on a journey, catch locusts, 
and string them together, to serve as food on the way" 

This sentence expresses a statement. Principal parts, the subject 
writer, modified by the adjectives a and recent, — and the leading verb says, 
modified by the quoted sentence. 

The quoted sentence expresses a statement. Its principal parts are the 
subject Bedouins, — the leading verbs catch and string, — and their respective 
objects locusts and them. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 131 

The subject Bedouins is modified by the adjective (article) the, the ad- 
junct of Mesopotamia, and the clause when about to set oat on a journey. 
The leading verb string is modified by the adverb together ; and both lead- 
ing verbs are modified by the clause to serve as food by the way. 

5. Go to the ant, thou sluggard ; she will teach thee 
industry, 

A compound sentence of two members ; the first expresses a command, 
the second a statement. — The principal parts of the first member are the 
subject thou understood, and the leading verb go, which is modified by the 
adjunct to the ant ; thou sluggard is a vocative expression. 

The principal parts of the second member are the subject she, — the lead- 
ing verb will teach, modified by the adjunct (to) thee, — and the object in- 
dustry 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze, as above, Sentences 1-6 in the last Exercise ; also the 
following : — 1. Worth makes the man, and want of it the fellow. 
2. Life is like a shadow; how swiftly it flies! 3. The flesh of the 
horse has been long known to be nutritious food, and that of the 
ass is still esteemed a great delicacy in Persia. 4. The moon has no 
atmosphere or water ; can it, then, have any inhabitants ? 5. " Baby- 
lon," says Aristotle, " was so large, that on the third day the news 
of its capture by Cyrus had not reached some of the citizens." 

## 

LESSON LXXVL 

A succession of very short sentences does not sound 
well. Several such sentences may be combined in one, as 
already shown, by means of the pronouns who, which, that 
(page 40), — participial clauses (page 69), — or conjunctions 
(page 116). 

In the story on the next page, combine into one sen- 
tence each group, using a pronoun, participle, or conjunc- 
tion, as suggested. Punctuate properly. Exchange com- 
positions, and let each scholar mark any mistake he finds. 



132 



COMBINING SENTENCES. 



Combining the sentences as suggested on the last page, you will have 
eight new sentences, which may be divided into three paragraphs. The 
sentences thus written may be analyzed, and the words classified as nouns, 
adjectives, etc. 




THE LITTLE FISHERMAN. 

Near a pretty farm-house ran a brook. This brook {Pronoun) 
wound through woods and meadows. It {Conjunction) finally 
emptied into a large river. 

In the farm-house lived Mr. and Mrs. Browning. . In the farm- 
house lived their five children {Conj.). {Conj.) The brook was the 
favorite resort of the young Brownings. 

They thought {Participle) one afternoon that they would catch 
some little fish, to put in a trough. They all set out for a deep 
place in the brook. . 

For a pole, Arthur had a long branch. To the branch {Pro.) he 
had tied a cord. {Conj.) He did not wish {Part.) to hurt the fish. 
To the end of the cord he fastened a bent pin in stead of a hook. 

A worm furnished him with bait. {Conj.) He threw in his 
hook. 



SENTENCE-B UILDING. \ 33 

Soon he felt a twitch. This twitch {Pro.) made him think that 
a fish was nibbling. (Conj.) He gave (Part.) a sudden jerk. He 
threw a minnow up in the air. 

It would have fallen back into the brook. (Conj.) Frank (Pro.) 
was on the opposite side of the brook. Frank caught it in a net 
as it was falling. (Conj.) It was soon swimming in a pail of water. 

This was done several times. (Conj.) The girls (Pro.) had 
watched the proceedings with great interest. They carried the 
pail home. (Conj.) They long kept the little fish as pets. The girls 
fed (Part.) them. (Conj.) The girls played (Part.) with them. 



Sentence-building was explained on page 13. Re- 
ferring to the engraving, from your own thoughts and 
from the suggestions made below, build up one long sen- 
tence on each of the following as a foundation : — 

Thus : — 1. From a little spring on a hill-side, where it has its origin, the 
brook flows, small at first, but gradually increasing and receiving other rivu- 
lets, till it grows into a large stream, and is finally swallowed up by a great 
river, through which its waters at last find their way to the ocean. 

1. The brook flows. (From what — its size — it receives w r hat — 
becomes what — flows into what ?) 

2. Alice sat. (The — Alice sat — how — on what — where did the 
stump stand — what was she looking at — wondering w r h ether — .) 

3. The girls stood. (Where — watching whom — crying out when 
and what?) 

4. The little fisherman jerked his pole. (How — when — why — 
with what success?) 

5. Frank held Ms net. (When — where— why — with what suc- 
cess — where had he obtained the net?) 

6. The fish was falling. (Where had it been jerked — how was 
it caught — where was it put?) 

7. The pail was carried home in triumph. (It had been filled 
with what — for what purpose — was carried by whom?) 

8. The brook glided quietly along. (In midsummer, making 
what kind of noise — caused by what — looking how in the sunshine; 
but in early spring, fed by what — dashed along how — doing what to 
its banks, and what to the meadows that bordered it ?) 



134 PUNCTUATION. 

LESSON LXXVII. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing written language 
by points, in order that the meaning may be readily un- 
derstood. The Punctuation-points are as follows : — 

Period, • Semicolon, ; 

Interrogation-point, ? Comma, , 

Exclamation-point, ! Dash, — 

Colon, : Parentheses, ( ) 

Brackets, [ ] 

Some of the most important rules of punctuation have 
been already presented. We shall now review these and 
learn some new ones. 

A Period must be placed after every sentence express- 
ing a statement or command, and after every abbreviated 
word. Write examples. 

Two distinct but kindred statements may be separated with the period, 
and thus made two sentences, — or with the semicolon, in which case they 
form the members of one compound sentence. Use the semicolon, when 
the statements are connected by and or for. Thus : — 

"Count not on to-morrow. Thou knowest not that to-morrow will 
dawn." (Or with the semicolon — " Count not on to-morrow ; thou," etc.) 
With a conjunction — " Count not on to-morrow; for thou/' etc. 

A period denoting an abbreviation does not take the place of any other 
point ; but, if an abbreviation closes a statement or command, one period 
suffices. Thus: — "He lives at Xyack, Rockland Co., N. Y." — What point 
follows the first period ? What double duty does the last period perform ? 

An Interrogation-point must be placed after every sen- 
tence and member expressing a question ; also, after the 
interjections eh and hey. Write examples. 

An Exclamation-point must be placed after every sen- 
tence, member, and expression, denoting an exclamation ; 
also, after every interjection except 0, eh, and hey ; as, 
" How improperly you have acted ! Fie ! For shame ! " 



COLON AND SEMICOLON 135 

The Colon, Semicolon, and Comma, are used between 
parts of sentences, and denote different degrees of separa- 
tion, — the colon the greatest, the comma the least. 

A Colon must be placed before a long quoted sentence, 
and before any quotation referred to by the words thus, 
this, these, following, as follows ; also, before an enu- 
meration of particulars introduced by first, second, etc. 

Curran alluded to the short life of Irish liberty in these impressive 
words : " 1 sat at her cradle ; I followed her hearse.' 7 

" Geographers distinguish three continents : first, the Eastern ; second, 
the Western ; third, the Australian.'' The three different degrees of sepa- 
ration are here shown : the greatest, denoted by the colon before the enu- 
meration ; the next, by the semicolons between the particulars ; the least, 
by the commas after first, second, and third. 

A Semicolon is placed, 

1. Between the members of a compound sentence, 
unless very short. Write an example. 

2. Before as introducing an example. Find the semi- 
colon thus used on this page. 

3. Between particulars enumerated with the words 
first, second, etc. See example above, under the colon. 

4. Before an enumeration of particulars, when the 
names merely are given ; as, " Geographers distinguish 
three continents ; the Eastern, the Western, and the 
Australian." 

EXERCISE. 

Write six sentences requiring the period after them ; six requir- 
ing the interrogation-point ; six requiring the exclamation-point. 

Write six compound sentences, and punctuate them properly. 
The engraving on page 171 will suggest ideas. 

Punctuate the following sentences ; supply needed capitals: — 

1. There are two classes of nouns first Common second Proper. 

2. The moon revolves round the earth in the same time that she 
turns on her axis hence she always presents the same side to us 



136 PUNCTUATION, 

3. We all have to write different kinds of letters letters of busi- 
ness letters of friendship letters of introduction etc 

4. Robin Hood was a noted highwayman of the time of Richard 
I sherwood forest was the scene of many of his exploits 

5. The following are regarded as the great epic poems first 
Homers Iliad second virgils eeneid third Miltons paradise lost 

6. Mr W S Scott, treas pro tern of the Mt Pleasant RRCo, ar- 
rived in town yesterday at 6 p m 

7. But three grand divisions of the earth were known to the 
ancients europe asia and Africa 

8. There is a fine thought in the following lines of Coleridge 

Hast thou a charm to stay the morning star 
in his steep course So long he seems to pause 
on thy bald awful head, o sovereign Blanc 

§e 

LESSON LXXVIII. 

A Comma is used to set off, 

1. Adjuncts and clauses not essential to the meaning 
of the sentence, particularly when introduced between 
closely connected parts ; as, " At length, Isabella, who 
had faith in Columbus, resolved to assist him." * 

No comma, if the adjunct or clause is essential to the meaning ; as, 
" Those icho begin revolutions rarely end them." 

2. Subjects introduced by as ircll as, and not^ etc. ; 
also vocative expressions, alternatives introduced by oi\ 
and single words relating to the sentence as a whole. 

Thus : — " Hungary, as well as Spain, is noted for its wines." " A boon 
from thee, Health, I crave." "Colon, or Columbus, was a Genoese." 
" Heat, therefore, is a force." " Milton, however, was blind." 

3. A noun in apposition, with its modifiers ; as, " Thus 
died Elizabeth, the good Queen Bess." 

* It is recommended that the scholar write the examples on the black-board, as dic- 
tated by the teacher, and show why the comma is used in each case. 



THE COMMA. 137 

4. A logical subject ending with a verb or consisting 
of parts separated by the comma ; as, " Those that hide, 
can find." 

A comma is used before a short quoted sentence, not 
introduced by a conjunction ; between very short mem- 
bers of compound sentences ; also, between distinct parts 
of a predicate, unless very short or closely connected; 
as, " Prosperity begets friends, adversity tries them." 

A comma is placed after each word in a series of 
more than two belonging to the same class, — or after 
each pair, if the words are taken in pairs ; also, after a 
word repeated for the sake of emphasis, with its adjuncts 
(if any). " Diamonds and rubies, pearls and emeralds, 
dazzled the eye." " Hope, hope alone, is ours." 

When a verb previously used is omitted, a comma 
takes its place ; as, u Virtue brings its own reward ; vice, 
its own punishment." 

EXERCISE. 

Write a sentence of your own, to illustrate each of the rides in 
this lesson, imitating the examples given. 

Punctuate the following:— Proverbs are short pithy homely 
sayings that embody the wisdom and experience of the million 
Though a man may miss many things he never misses his mouth 
The mill of heaven grinds slowly but grinds to powder Generally 
the rebukes of the just are worth more than their praise 

u On the 27th of September 106G at the mouth of the Somme 
there was a great sight to be seen four hundred large sailing-ves- 
sels more than a thousand transports and sixty thousand men were 
on the point of sailing The sun shone splendidly after long rain 
trumpets sounded the cries of the armed multitude rose to heaven 
on the far horizon on the shore on the wide-spreading river on the 
sea which opens out thence broad and shining masts and sails ex- 
tended like a forest The Normans under William their gallant 
Duke were setting out to conquer England " 



138 PUNCTUA TION. 



LESSON LXXIX. 

" Honesty — where can it be found ? " We begin as if about to say, 
" Honesty can nowhere be found," but after the first word change the con- 
struction. What point denotes the break ? 

" His air was majestic, his brow was lofty, and — his nose was red." The 
sentiment, at first grave, suddenly changes to humorous. What point de- 
notes the transition ? 

" You are a — a— vile, worthless — " " Hear me before you censure," 
interrupted the other. The first speaker hesitates before applying the 
epithets, and is afterward interrupted by his companion. What point de- 
notes the hesitation and the interruption ? 

"And this was Augustus — Augustus, Rome's emperor and the world's 
master." The word Augustus is repeated abruptly. What point denotes 
the repetition ? 

"Mrs. L was born in 18 — ." Letters are omitted from the name, 

and figures from the date. What point denotes the omission ? 

The Dash is used to denote a break in the construc- 
tion, a transition in the sentiment, a sudden interruption, 
hesitation, an abrupt repetition, or an omission of letters, 
figures, or words. 

A dash after other points makes them indicate a 
greater degree of separation than they generally denote. 

" Borussia (such was the ancient name of Prussia) lay along the south- 
ern coast of the Baltic." Here an explanatory clause is introduced between 
the subject Borussia and its verb lay. What marks enclose this clause ? 

"Too many studies distracts [distract] the mind." Quoting from some 
one who uses the word distracts wrong, I enclose after it the right word 
distract within what marks ? 

Parentheses are used to enclose words that explain, 
modify, or add to the main statement, when introduced 
between closely connected parts. 

Brackets are used chiefly in quoted passages, to enclose 
corrections, observations, or words improperly omitted. 

The Apostrophe denotes the possessive case of nouns, 
or the omission of a letter or letters ; as, men's, e'er, tho'. 



PUNCTUATION. 139 

The Hyphen connects the parts of a compound word, 
or joins the syllables of a word divided at the end of 
a line. 

Quotation-points are used to enclose words quoted, or 
represented as employed in dialogue. 

E XEK CI SE. 

Write a sentence illustrating each rule in this Lesson. 

Punctuate the following : — 1. A letter may be omitted from the 
beginning middle or end of a word as neath for oeneath een for 
even thro for through 2. Dr Johnson (and his remark always 
occurs to me when I go trouting calls a fishing pole " a rod with a 
worm at one end and a fool at the other 3. My dear sir III the 
fact is I am delicate about the matter 4. Who [whom have you 
seen 5. Mrs G- is beautiful graceful and accomplished and talks 
through her nose 6. My country O my country hast thou so fallen 



LESSON LXXX. 

Errors in Speaking and Writing are so numerous 
that the student can not be too watchful for avoiding 
them. The most common mistakes have already been 
pointed out; further examples of these, arranged pro- 
miscuously, follow. The pupil is also introduced to some 
new varieties of error, and to certain faults of style and 
inelegancies of expression, with directions as to the proper 
mode of correcting them. 

This Exercise may be divided into lessons of con- 
venient length. Correct errors of every kind, and give 
the reasons. 

Us boys haint had no recess. 

Had Napoleon have winned the victory at Waterloo hov/ 
different would have been the destinys of Europe ? 



140 CORRECTION OF 

A Frenchman, disappointed with english cookery, ex- 
claimed, I have never before seen a land with fifty religions 
and only one sauce. I shall never visit it no more. 

See if you can buy me Worcester and Webster's Dic- 
tionary at the bookseller's and stationer's next door. 

I dont know but what if you had arrove sooner this here 
catastrophe might have been prevented. 

No one of my fathers sons have been so lucky as me. 

Five dollars are a small sum to leave to the poor. 

Five dollars being referred to as one sum, the verb are should be changed 
to the singular form is. 

How many times are four contained in fifty four. 

Five-eighths are more than one-half. 

By how much do nineteen-twentieths exceed two-fifths. 

Wilsons " Travels in Turkey " which were announced 
last year have just been issued from Slacks and Co's press. 

The Western prairie land produces largely of grain. 

You aint going to depend on him coming, are you ? 

Accept of this in the spirit in the which I offer it. 

Clay's Calhoun's and Webster's are rare enough today. 

It was supposed that his first act would have been to 
have hurled defiance at his enemies. 

The reference here is to an act future as regards the time when it was 
supposed. But have does not express future time ; say would be and hurl. 

Another, perhaps, might have been able to have man- 
aged the affair better than me. 

This valley was thought at some former time to be over- 
flown with water, and to be the bed of a enormous lake. 

Mr M is one of them practical statesmen that believes in 
geting at the root of an evil. 

The number of Mohammedans are said to be not fewer 
than 125,000,000. 

The phenomena that has just appeared is wonderful. 

We heard as how your barn was burnt. 



COMMON ERRORS. 141 

Many a person clapt their hands on hearing this. 
The class should here be shown a globe. 

It is the globe that should be shown and not the class. Make the right 
noun the subject : — " A globe should here be shown to the class." 

Thrice was he tendered the crown. 

We were presented with sweet smelling nosegays. 

The Nile is the longest of any river of Africa. 

I seen some fine bananas, and was offered a orange. 

Fred's brother's wife's sister's farm has been sold. 

Interesting indeed are the accounts of the adventures of 
the immediate descendants of the first settlers of Kentucky. 

Art thou not ashamed to see me here, when you recol- 
lect how I was lured hither ? 

Do not use different pronouns — thou and you — referring to the same 
person, in the same sentence. Change art thou to are you, or you recollect 
to thou recollectest. 

Art thou not weary of waiting for your friends ? 

Such persons as have winter-red in the Arctic regions and 
that have came back alive have a shattered constitution 
generally. 

Every man who appeared and that we spoke to were too 
busy to answer us. 

Fish have been discovered in subterranean rivers which 
have no eyes. 

Them Chinee miners have the spitefulest dispositions I 
ever seen ; they never forget no injuries. 

On examining his horse's foot, he found his shoe was 
loose and cutting his hoof. 

In the first part of the sentence, his and he are used with reference to 
the rider; in the latter part, his is used of the horse. Change to "the 
shoe," "the hoof." — In the same sentence, do not apply the same pronoun to 
different persons or things. 

When they looked at their stock of provisions they found 
they were near ruined with the salt-water. 



142 CORRECTION OF 

Angry men permit of no explanations nor apologies. 
An old sailor was setting by a table with a cork leg. 
That tongs has been broke this six months. 
Husband and wife should love one another. 
I and you and Reuben will start immediately school is 
out. 

Modesty requires that we speak of ourselves last; say you, and Reuben, 
and I. — Do not use immediately or directly for as soon as. 

I and the girls can go to the village directly dinner is 
over, easier than we can after dark. 

There are no water, no wind, no sound, on the surface 
of the smiling satellite whom we call the moon. 

Who can we trust, if not them as we have knowed from 
our most early years'. 

We hadnH ought to do what conscience tells us not to. 

To should not be used for the infinitive ; say to do. 

Mrs Jones she don't try to get w T ork from no one, for she 
doesnt want to. 

Hyenas are equally as destructive as wolfs. 

If I was you, I would make them to obey the rules. 

If you would stay to home, I can go. 

Every professor and every student are required to keep 
their own record. 

This constant censuring others is a bad habit. 

Here the adjectives this and constant, used with the word censuring, 
show it to be a noun ; and the preposition of is needed to indicate the rela- 
tion between it and others. Say " this constant censuring of others." — 
In the sentence below, the use of the adverb constantly shows censuring to 
be a participle, and of must not intervene between it and its object others. 

Constantly censuring of others is a bad habit. 
The mending the table will not take long. 
The cost of mending of the table will not be great. 
We can not make men immortal by erecting of monu- 
ments of marble to their honor. 



COMMON ERRORS. 143 

The beau monde will forgive dishonesty or falsehood 
easier than clownishness. 

Beau monde is the French for world of fashion ; its use looks affected. — 
Do not use foreign words or constructions, when there are pure English ones 
just as expressive. 

A Table of Latin and French expressions often used, with their English 
equivalents, will be found on page 176. 

The opening ceremonies passed off comme il faut. The 
president was quite au fait in his part, the tout ensemble 
was grand, and every thing was en rhgle. The exhibition 
bids fairly to be a great success, but nous verrons. 

We may remark en passant that New England is long 
celebrated for its manufactures. 

To become great without ceasing to be virtuous is a 
noble undertaking, but in which few have succeeded. 

Which is a sufficient connective ; remove but — or say but one in which. 

The use of the word except for accept is a bad lapsus Un- 
gual, but which we often hear. 

Of all other of our acquaintances, flatterers are generally 
the least friendliest and the selfshest. 

It was Jackson who inaugurated the practice of bestow- 
ing the offices within his gift to his political friends. 

Inaugurated is here used in the sense of introduced — a sense not author- 
ized by good usage. We inaugurate a president or a public hall, but not a 
practice. — Do not use questionable ivords, or any word in a signification not 
authorized by good writers of the present day. 

Aggravate is often wrongly used for provoke ; admire (with a verb) for 
like ; eventuate for result ; jeopardize for endanger or risk ; resurrect for 
revive ; transpire for elapse ; balance (of persons) for rest ; like for as, etc. 

It seems as though Turkey teas jeopardizing her very 
existence by aggravating her northern dependencies. 

I and he would admire to see you try and do it. 

The war eventuated in France's humiliation. 

It is to be feared that years will transpire before we see 
another such a couple of scholars. 



144 CORRECTION OF 

Some were hurt by the coach overturning, and the bal- 
ance were frightened pretty bad. 

By his usual effrontery, he induced his friends to follow 
the same course which he had. 

Few could conduct a campaign like Napoleon did. 

He's a regular brick, but a little cheeky withal. 

Such slang expressions are often heard, but they should not be used 
either in speaking or writing. Say, " He is a good fellow, but somewhat 
presuming withal." — Avoid vulgar expressions and slang. 

You can't dead-head on this boat nohow ; that's played 
out ; pony up your tin. 

The first off, that dead-beat told us a whopper. 

Sam has got the small-pox. — Who has got my pen ? 

He dont care a red cent for nobody. 

If you turn up your nose at people, theyll get mad. 

Ive got the blues today, but yesterday I felt bang-up. 

Let's skedaddle, or they'll gobble us up. 

Pyrrhus the Romans shall destroy. 

A noun does not show, by any difference of form, whether it is subject 
or object ; but the object generally stands after the verb. As in this sen- 
tence both nouns precede the verb, we can not tell which is to destroy the 
other. Alter the arrangement so as to state clearly, 1. That Pyrrhus shall 
be the destroyer; 2. That he shall be destroyed. — Expressions like this, 
that may be taken two ways, are said to be ambiguous. — Avoid Ambiguity. 

The duke yet lives that Henry shall depose. 

I will have {ambiguous) mercy, and not sacrifice. 

Mary told her sister that her frock was torn. 

Daniel Webster commenced a teacher at a early age. 

I expect John will long remember that boy's beating. 

A man was found dead this morning on a stoop that had 
evidently seen better days. 

Wanted a situation by a young man, to take care of a 
garden and horses of steady habits. 

The pleasure of relieving of the misfortunate can only 
be experienced by the benevolent. 



COMMON ERRORS. 145 

The position for which he had applied and long expected, 
was now given to another. 

Which being the object of the preposition for, another pronoun must be 
introduced as the object of the verb expected — "for which he had applied, 
and which he had long expected." — Do not leave out wards essential to a clear 
expression of the meaning. 

They did not enter the class they were assigned. 

Railroads for which charters had been obtained and act- 
ually been commenced, were abandoned for want of means. 

Who loves me, I will love. 

The crops are plenty, and money abundant. 

I seen the floor had been scoured with half an eye. 

Everybody feels they have got to go to Europe. 

Good writers used to use some words that have now 
gone out of use. 

The similar words used, use, use, occurring so close together, weaken 
the sentence. This fault is called Tautology. Get rid of the repetition, 
by substituting other words or forms of expression : " Good writers formerly 
used some words that are now obsolete." The recurrence of the same sound 
in different words is also objectionable. — Avoid Tautology. 

One thing was a wonder to us — how one weak woman 
could accomplish so much. 

Common schools, which poor and rich may attend in com- 
mon, are commonly regarded as great blessings. 

This was news to us all, for formerly formidable formali- 
ties prevailed at this court. 

The fair was fairly attended, especially by the fair sex, 
whose fairy forms where everywhere visible. 

At Athens, it was the birthright and privilege of every 
poet and citizen to rail aloud and in public. 

The style is here weakened by the use of words that merely repeat the 
idea. This fault is called Redundancy. Privilege is implied in birth- 
right, poet in citizen, and aloud means nothing more than in public. Prune 
out these words that add nothing to the thought: "At Athens, it was the 
birthright of every citizen to rail in public." — Avoid Redundancy. 

7 



146 CORRECTION OF COMMON ERRORS. 

JEs is appended at the end of most nouns ending with 
final o, to form the plural. 

Integrity is much the safest and most secure mode of 
dealing with the world ; it is attended with much less trou- 
ble and difficulty than dissimulation and deceit. 

On Judas is centred the universal loathing of all men. . 

It was at I and you he aimed at in his remarks. 

Another such a chance may never again occur hereafter. 

A widow lady wants to hire a pleasant good-furnished 
room without children. 

I confess with humility the sterility of my fancy and the 
debility of my judgment. 

He answered surlily that he should persevere in it. 

This sentence sounds ill, 1. From the repetition of sound in surlily; 
2. Because of the short unaccented words in it at the end. Correct thus : 
" He answered in a surly tone that he should persevere." — Avoid endiug a 
sentence with a preposition, or with a succession of unaccented syllables or 
woirds. 

Though he lived holily and godlily, he made no great 
show of amiableness. 

A preposition is a bad word to let the voice rest on, or 
to close a clause with. 

Wrongheadedness is often a cause of unsuccessfulness. 

His horses, being intoxicated, he had no control of. 

He sided with, and was the chief supporter of, Maud. 

The breaks after the prepositions with and of terminating divisions of 
the sentence and relating to the same noun Maud following, are very un- 
pleasant to the ear. Say instead, " He sided with Maud, and was her chief 
supporter." 

No nation takes greater delight in, or gives greater en- 
couragement to, education than us Americans. 

Who can have any esteem for, or place any confidence 
in, a man that has betrayed his trust ? 

What is so exhilarating, what is more healthy, than 
horseback-riding ? 



VARIETY OF CONSTRUCTION. 



147 



LESSON LXXXI. 

Variety in the construction and length of sentences 
is quite* necessary. By using pronouns, participles, and 
conjunctions, combine the short sentences below, so as 
to make a connected Composition on " The Deer's 
Stratagem," with sentences of different length. Avoid 
faults that have been corrected in the preceding Lessons. 




THE DEER'S STRATAGEM. 

A hunter was looking for game among the mountains of Ten- 
nessee. He witnessed a remarkable scene. It showed in a striking 
light the instinct by which the lower animals are sometimes guided. 

On the branch of a pine at some distance, lie observed a wild- 
cat. It was quietly crouching, as if lying in wait for game. The 
hunter thought he would have a shot at the animal. He began to 
steal silently toward the pine. He had not taken many steps, how- 
ever, when he saw the wild-cat make a spring. He saw it fasten 



148 UNITY. 

its claws in the back of a doe. The doe was accompanied by a 
buck and fawn. They had passed beneath its place of concealment. 

The doe was in an agony of fear. In vain she tried to shake 
off her assailant. Suddenly she raised her head. She looked hur- 
riedly around. She made a dash for an old tree. This tree had 
been blown over years before. It leaned across a little run in the 
woods, a few feet from the ground. 

The doe nicely calculated its height. She dashed beneath the 
trunk at just the right spot to bring the wild-cat up all standing 
against it. She thus brushed him off from her back as if he had 
been a feather. Then with a grateful heart she rejoined her com- 
panions. They had taken the alarm. All three bounded out of 
sight. The wild-cat was disappointed. He was pretty well bruised. 
He slunk off in the opposite direction. 



Besides writing the above as directed, tell the story connectedly 
in your own language, describing the scene as represented in the 
picture. 

se 

LESSON LXXXII. 

Your Composition on "The Deer's Stratagem/' if 
well done, must read much better than the story as told 
in the book, because the latter is made up of so many 
very short sentences. But there is a fault on the other 
side also. Sentences may be too long and involved. 

" After they had left Cuba, the Spaniards found their way to Hayti, 
where one of their vessels was wrecked, and where they were well received 
by the natives, who looked upon them as a superior race, and treated them 
with a kindness for which the Spaniards afterward made but a poor-return." 

Here the subject changes too often (how many times ?), 
and too many things are crowded into one sentence. This 
destroys its Unity. The remedy is to get rid of some of 
the subjects, and make two sentences out of the one. 

" After leaving Cuba, the Spaniards found their way to Hayti, where 
one of their vessels was wrecked. The natives looked upon them as a 



VIOLATIONS OF UNITY CORRECTED. 149 

superior race, and treated them with a kindness which was afterward but 
ill requited." 

So, the unity of a sentence is lost, if we express in it 
thoughts that have no connection. Thus : — 

" This remarkable woman, who was possessed of an excellent spirit and 
a large fortune, died of the cholera, which was very fatal at that time in 
southern Europe." 

Corrected. — " This excellent woman was possessed of a large fortune. 
She fell a victim to the cholera, which was very fatal at that time in south- 
ern Europe." 

EXERCISE. 

Correct violations of unity, separating into as many sentences as 
may he necessary : — 

1. His death was a great blow* to his countrymen, who imme- 
diately began to look about for a suitable person to succeed him. 

2. Lake Titicaca, lying partly in Bolivia and partly in Peru, the 
ancient empire of the Incas, which wns conquered in the sixteenth 
century by Pizarro, who invaded the country with less than two 
hundred men, is second in size of the South American lakes. 

3. The march of the Greeks was through an uncultivated coun- 
try, whose savage inhabitants fared hardly, having no other riches 
than a breed of lean sheep, whose flesh was rank and unsavory, by 
reason of their continual feeding upon sea-fish. 

4. Pitt, who was born in 1708, and died in his seventieth year 
from the effects of an apoplectic fit, after a speech in the House of 
Lords against a motion to acknowledge the independence of Amer- 
ica, was a great statesman and the first Earl of Chatham. 

5. Potosi (and we may here remark that it is noted for its rich 
silver-mines, which were discovered by an Indian, who falling 
caught at a bush which came up in his hands with its roots covered 
with shining particles) is mostly an elevated table-land. 

6. Alfred the Great, though his efforts, which were earnest and 
unceasing, were unable wholly to dispel the darkness of his age, 
which was the close of the ninth century, yet greatly improved 
the condition of his countrymen. 

7. The worthy man has gone to his rest, but we understand 
that his afflicted family will continue the business. 



150 ARRANGING WORDS IN VERSE. 

LESSON LXXXIII. 

1. Who hath killed the pretty flowers, 
Born and bred in summer bowers? 
Who hath taken away their bloom? 
Who hath sent them to their tomb ? 
December. 

Above we have a verse of poetry. In it, December is 
represented as a person, or personified ; what words show 
this ? How does each line begin ? 

Below are words which, if properly arranged, will 
make six more verses like the above. So arrange them, 
and present the whole poem, written, punctuated prop- 
erly, and headed December. Then classify the words as 
nouns, adjectives, etc. ; and analyze each sentence (p. 130). 

2. Who the birds so gay hath chased, linnet and lark, all away ? 
Who their joyous breath hath hushed, and made still as death the 
forest ? December. 

3. Who the laughing river hath chilled? Who doth make the 
old oak shiver? Who in snow hath wrapped the world? Who 
doth make the wild winds blow ? December. 

4. Who, when the night- wind's swift and keen, on snowy drift 
doth ride, o'er the sea and o'er the land — on mischief bent — who is 
he ? December. 

5. Who doth strike the way-worn traveller to the heart, with 
icy dart? Who doth make the seaman's home — the ocean-wave — 
the seaman's grave ? December. 

6. Who at midnight hour doth prowl around the door like a 
thief, creeping through each crevice and crack, peeping through 
the very key-hole ? December. 

7. Who the traveller's toes doth pinch? Who the school-boy's 
nose doth wring ? Who doth make your fingers tingle ? Who doth 
make the sleigh-bells jingle ? December. 



Write a Composition on Decembee, telling about the month all 
that you can think of (Christmas, holidays, etc.). 



ARRANGING WORDS IN VERSE. 151 

In contrast with December, we will now present June. 
A model verse is first given. Here the first and the third 
line rhyme, and the second and fourth (which, to indi- 
cate this, stand a little in, to the right). Arrange, write 
the whole correctly, and head it June ; then classify the 
words, and analyze the sentences : — 

1. The sun shines fair o'er flood and field, 
And all around is leaf and bloom ; 
The meadows now their harvest yield, 
And zephyrs waft their sweet perfume. 

2. Smooth and slow saunters the rivulet, 'mid stooping flowers 
and bordering grass; low and soft the birds are whispering to 
young ones in their thicket-bowers. 

3. With pensive air the gabbling goose leads her goslings forth 
o'er the lake, while there quacking ducklings and ducks take their 
muddle in silent bliss. 

4. 'Neath sheltering shrubs the busy hen, strong and swift, 
plies her vigorous claw, and with unctuous grubs feasts her brood, 
raked forth from straw and scattered leaves. 

5. Tranquil, sweet June ! thou art the fairest, brightest month 
of all the year ; around thy sunny brow summer's first glories, all 
so dear, are wreathed. 

Write a Composition on June, presenting some of the above 
thoughts (with others) in your own language. 

#§ 

LESSON LXXXIV. 

Letter-ivritinfj is the most important branch of com- 
position, for every one has to w T rite letters. There are 
business-letters, official letters, news-letters to the public 
press, letters of introduction, and ordinary letters of friend- 
ship. These have to be dated, addressed, subscribed, and 
superscribed, according to certain forms. 



152 LETTER - WRITING. 

Date. — This generally stands first, on the right, — but 
sometimes at the end, on the left. It consists of the 
place, day of the month, and year. 

The name of the post-office, town, or city (except in the case of great 
cities like New York, Philadelphia, etc.), should always be followed by that 
of the state ; with obscure places, it is well also to give the county. If the 
state is omitted, as there are many places of the same name in different 
states, the person written to may be at a loss where to send his reply. The 
forms presented at the end of the Lesson will serve as examples of these 
directions, as well as of those given below. Follow them in punctuation 
and general style. 

Address. — This comes next to the date, on the left of 
the page. It contains on the first line the name and title 
of the person written to ; and on the second, Sir, — Dear 
Sir (the common form, even if a stranger is addressed), 
— My dear Sir, — Madam (whether the lady is married 
or not), — Dear Madam, — My dear Madam, — Gentle- 
men, — Dear Sirs, — Ladies, — according to the degree of 
intimacy. 

Other forms are appropriate to relatives or intimates ; as, My dear 
Father, Mother, Sister, Brother, Wife, — Dear Uncle John, — My dear Aunt 
Mary, — My dear Jane, — Dear Friend, — Dear Robert. 

A clergyman may be addressed as Reverend and dear Sir. 

When the date appears at the top of the page, the name of the per- 
son written to, in stead of standing first in the address, is sometimes placed 
at the end of the letter, on the left. 

Subscription. — This consists of certain terms of respect 
or affection which close the letter, followed in the next 
line by the signature. Different forms are appropriate, 
according to the relative positions of the writer and the 
person addressed. 

Yours truly is the common form. We have also, Yours, etc., — Yours 
respectfully, sincerely, faithfully, gratefully, — Yours ever y — Very truly yows, 
— Yours most truly, — Yours with respect, — Yours with high regard, — Yours 
in haste, — Your friend, servant, obedient servant, etc. 



LETTER - 1 VRITING. 153 

Superscription. — We superscribe a letter when we place 
on the outside the name and title of the person addressed, 
with his residence, which should be written plainly and in 
full — post-office, county (except in the case of great cities), 

and state. 

Mr. Aaron F. Broivn, 
Eureka, 

Gallia Co., 
Ohio. 

The word Personal, Private, or Confidential, may be written above the 
superscription, on the left, to indicate that a letter is on private business. 

A letter of introduction should be left unsealed, and should contain 
near the lower left-hand corner of the envelope the name of the person 
introduced, in some such form as the following : Introducing Dr. Gray — 
To introduce Mr. F. R. Bliss. 

When a letter is carried by private hand, it is usual to acknowledge the 
favor by placing, in the position described above, the words Politeness of 
Mr. — , or Favored by Mrs. — . 

As regards the title to be used in the address and superscription, Mr. 
is in better taste than Esq., unless a lawyer or justice of the peace is 
addressed. To use both (Mr. Arthur Bates, Esq.) is wrong. Either Dr. or 
M. D. may be used with a physician's name, but not both (Dr. J. F. Drew, 
or J. F. Drew, M. D.). A.B., A.M., and LL.D., belong respectively to 
those who have received the college degrees of Bachelor of Arts, Master of 
Arts, and Doctor of Laws. "When the higher title is used, the lower should 
be dropped. 

The Rev* is the title for ministers, with D. D. or S. T. D. after the 
name in the case of Doctors of Divinity. 2 he Hon.* is prefixed to the 
names of judges, members of congress and the legislature, etc. The Presi- 
dent of the United States or the Governor of a state is His Excellency. 

The eldest or only daughter of the Welsh family is addressed as Miss 
Welsh ; if there are other daughters, they are distinguished by their Chris- 
tian names. Ella, the second daughter, for instance, is Miss Ella Welsh ; 
on the death or marriage of her elder sister, she becomes Miss Welsh. 

The forms on the next two pages will illustrate the 
directions that have been given. Let the student, for 
different Exercises, copy each form, following the punc- 

* Punctilious people use The before Rev. and Hon. ; common usage omits it. 



154 LETTER - WRITING. 

tuation, fill out the letter with matter of his own, fold, 
envelope, and superscribe it. In letter-writing, try to be 
clear and to the point. 

76 Madison Avenue, 

N. Y., July 3, 1876. 
Mr. R S. Beaddock: — 
Dear Sir, 

In reply to your favor of the 29th ult., just received, 
asking for information respecting the public libraries of this 
city, I beg leave to say that, etc. 

I remain, dear sir, 

Your obedient servant, 

Horace F. Swain. 



Hill, Mass., July 1, 1876. 
Messrs. Hunter & Brown, 
Boston : — 

Gentlemen, 

Have the goodness to let me know, etc. 
Yours truly, 

Nat. F. Short. 



Packet Northern Light, 
Near Sandy Hook. 

The Rev. A. B. Blake, D. D. :— 
My dear Father, 

I embrace the opportunity afforded by the return 
of the pilot-boat, to say one more farewell word, etc. 

Your affectionate son, 

Reginald* 
July 5, "1Q. 

Franklin Station, Md., 
June 28, 1876. 
Friend Jenkins, 

My wife and daughter will take the early train to-morrow 
for Baltimore, to do some shopping. Will you have the 
kindness, etc. 

Fraternally yours, 

Noah P. Hurd. 
S. H. Jenkins, Esq., 
Baltimore. 



FORMS OF LETTERS AND NOTES. 



155 



Dubuque, Iowa, July 7, '76. 
To the Comm'rs of Public Works, St. Louis : — 
Gentlemen, 

Allow me to call jour attention, etc. 
Hoping to hear favorably from you, I remain 
Respectfully yours, 

John D. Satterlee. 



Nashville, Tenn., July 13, 1876. 
Miss S. H. Wexdover: — 
Dear Madam, 

Hearing that you intend to dispose of your 
farm in Blount Co., I write for information on the following 
* # * 

An early answer will oblige 

Yours with respect, 

James Brockelbaxk. 



points. 



NOTES OF INVITATION. 

(i.) 

Dr. and Mrs. Rowe present their 
compliments to Mr. and Mrs. H. F. 
Stone, and request the pleasure of 
their company on Monday evening, 
the 10th met 

V Pearl St., 
July 3d. 



(1.) An Acceptance, 
Mr. and Mrs. H. F. Stone accept 
with pleasure the polite invitation 
of Dr. and Mrs. Rowe for the 10th 
inst 

40 Hamilton Ave.. 
July 5th. 



(2.) 
Mr. Rumford presents his re- 
spects to the Rev. Dr. Harlow, and 
solicits the pleasure of his company 
at dinner on Thursday next, at 6 
o'clock. 

No. 18 Hudson Square, 
July 10th. 

(3.) 

Mr. D. R. Abbott presents his 
compliments to Miss Browning;, and 
begs that he may be allowed to wait 
on her to-morrow evening to the 
Academy of Music. 

August 1st. 



(2.) A Regret 
Dr. Harlow regrets that illness 
in his family will prevent him from 
accepting Mr. Rumford's kind invi- 
tation to dinner for Thursday next. 

All Souls' Rectory, 
July 12th. 

(3.) A Regret. 

Miss Browning begs to thank 
Mr. D. R. Abbott lor his invitation 
for to-morrow evening, and regrets 
that a previous engagement will 
prevent her from accepting it. 

August 1st. 



In stead of a formal note of reply, the card of the person invited may 
be sent, with the words Accepts with pleasure, or Regrets, written on it. 



156 LETTER - WRITING. 

Following the preceding forms for dating, etc., write 
A letter to one of your parents, giving an account of some visit 
you have recently made away from home. 

A letter describing a visit to some place of amusement. 

A letter to a cousin, describing your school. 

A letter to your teacher, describing the place in which you live, 

A note accepting an invitation to dinner. 

A regret, declining an invitation to the theatre. 

A note to a friend, requesting the loan of a volume. 

A note to friends in the country, announcing a visit, 

A reply from the friends in the country. 

#§ 

LESSON LXXXV. 

Business-letters should be brief, and confined to the 
business in hand. 

Below are presented forms of certain letters which 
are constantly required in the counting-house. As dif- 
ferent Exercises, let the student copy them in turn, 
dating and addressing, subscribing and superscribing 
each, in regular letter form : — 

1. Letter of Introduction, 

We beg leave to introduce to you our esteemed friend, 
Mr. Barry Winslow of this city, who is about visiting Mont- 
real in the interest of Messrs. Huntingdon & Co,, correspond- 
ents of ours in New Orleans. Any courtesies or favors 
you may be able to show Mr, Winslow will be warmly appre- 
ciated by 

2. Letter of Credit. 

If Mr. Henry Foote, the bearer of this letter, should 
desire to purchase merchandise of your house, you may hold 
us responsible for such purchases to any amount not exceed- 
ing two thousand dollars ($2000). 

In the event of Mr. Foote's failing to meet any payment 
according to agreement^ please give us immediate notice. 



FORMS OF BUSINESS-LETTERS. 157 

3. Letters of Advice. 

Under date of the 15th inst. we have (or, We have this 
day) drawn on you, at 30 days' sight, favor of Messrs. Hart 
& Dunlap of Liverpool, for £1250 ster. (twelve hundred and 
fifty pounds). Please honor draft, and charge the same to 
our account. 

I have this day accepted your draft on me, @ 10 days' 
sight, favor of H. F. Dunstan, for $560 (five hundred and 
sixty dollars), as advised in your favor of 16th inst. 

Your favor of 30th ult. came duly to hand, and according 
to your request we forward to your address, per Central 
R. R. of New Jersey, 3 hhd. Porto Rico sugar and 2 bbl. 
N. O. molasses. Amount to your debit, as per enclosed bill, 
$325.53, @ 4 months, 4th inst. Bill of lading enclosed. 

4. Letter with Account. 

We enclose herewith your Account to 1st inst., which 
please examine and advise. 

5. Letter with Invoice. 

Herewith we enclose Invoice of 500 bbl. superfine flour, 
which we forward to your address. Desiring to take ad- 
vantage of present prices, we beg that you will close sales 
as early as practicable. Please advise us of any change in 
the market. 

6. Letter ordering Merchandise. 

You will please forward to my address, per Hudson River 
R. R., the following articles ; viz., 

15 bar. Mackerel, No. 1, Halifax ; 

250 boxes Smoked Herring, medium. 

On receipt of bill of lading, I will remit my note at 30 days. 

Besides the above business-letters, the following forms 
will be found useful. The student, by a variety of exer- 
cises, should be made perfectly familiar with them. 

Let him be required, for example, to write on the board his note 
at three months, to J. Hay, for $100, with interest. 

A note on demand, to Robert Dunn, for $220^^, with interest. 



158 MERCANTILE FORMS. 

A receipt to Richard Roe, for $150, one quarter's rent. 

A bill against Jones & Co., for 50 bu. potatoes, at f 5c. 

A bill against Mrs. F. Hone, for 3 pair of kid gloves, 6 pair of 
stockings, and 1 dozen spools of cotton. 

A sight draft on H. P. Howell, in favor of Bache & Co., for 
twelve hundred dollars. 

A bill of exchange for £300, on Blunt Bro., London, in favor of 
Alfred S. Smith, ten days' sight. 

A demand note, for $500, to Hawkins & Merry, with interest. 

Such exercises may be extended at the teacher's pleasure. 

1. Bill. 

Baltimore, July 15, 1876. 
Mrs. D. S, Ferry, 

To Allen & Blakeman, Dr. 



July 



12 
15 



12 yd. Calico, @ 12#, 
2 Silk Scarfs, @ $1.35, 



Received Payment, 



50 
70 



20 



Allen & Blakeman. 

2. Receipt. 

Received, JV. Y., July 3, 1876, from Mr. A. F. John- 
son , one hundred mid twenty -five dollars, in full for one 
quarter's salary, to 1st inst. 

J][25~ Frederick Blossom. 

3, Promissory Notes. 

Columbus, Jidy 8, 1876. 
Thirty days after date, I promise to pay James Dixon, 
or bearer, two hundred T ^ dollars, at the First National 
Bank. Value received. 

jfjL Benjamin Haddock. 

100* 



Springfield, July 17, 1876. 
On demand^ we promise to pay Andrew Block, or order, 
four hundred dollars, with interest, value received. 

<mq£J~ Carey & Joslyn. 



LETTERS OF FRIENDSHIP. 159 

4. Draft. 

^ 8QQ - Davenport, June 22, 1876. 

At sight, pay to the order of Lewis Henderson eight 
hundred dollars, value received, and charge the same to ac- 
count of 

Brotherton & Co. 

To Messrs. Ball & Tully, JV. Y. 

5. Bill of Exchange. 



Exchange for £1200. Boston, June 20, 1876. 

Thirty days after sight of this First of Exchange (Sec- 
ond and Third of the same date a?id tenor unpaid), pay to 
the order of Philip S* Sterling, twelve hundred pounds ster- 
ling, value received, with or without further advice, and 
charge the same to the account of 

Harrison A. Morgan. 

To Danl. F. Bext, London. 



LESSON LXXXVI. 

Letters of Friendship are often required of us all ; 
and, as persons are frequently judged by their letters, 
care and thought should be bestowed on this department 
of composition as on every other.. 

There is a tendency in young writers to spin out what 
they have to say, from a fear that they may not fill the 
sheet. This is to be guarded against. Given a certain 
amount of thought, and the fewer words in which it is 
expressed, so they are sufficient to express it clearly and 
elegantly, the stronger the style will be. 

Sprightliness and wit in letters are always pleasing, 
but there should be no overstrained efforts for effect, no 
stiffness or affectation. Writing too much about one's 
self is a common fault, always to be avoided. 



160 



LETTER-WRITING. 



As an exercise in this kind of writing, prepare, according to the 
directions heretofore presented, a letter to some relative in the 
East, giving an account of overtaking an emigrant party at their 
noonday halt, during an imaginary trip westward over the Great 
Plains. The engraving will suggest thoughts. 




Halt of an Emigrant Party. 

Among other things, it may be well to describe the country— 
the distant landscape — the place selected for the nooning — any 
member of the party worthy of special notice—by what they were 
accompanied — the wagons and their contents- — their place of desti- 
nation and object in going there — the pleasures and dangers of this 
mode of travelling. What has made it less common than formerly ? 



Criticising, or passing judgment on a Composition, 
pointing out its beauties and defects, and taking special 
notice of such errors as may occur, is an improving exer- 
cise. It trains the eye to the detection of mistakes, and, 
if done orally, as here recommended, will help to give 



CRITICISING. 161 

the student a confidence and fluency in expressing him- 
self which it is all-important to acquire. 

For an exercise in Criticism, let the class exchange 
Compositions; then let each pupil in turn rise, and, after 
having read aloud the exercise he holds, say what he 
thinks of its sentiments, style, etc. — pointing out what 
he regards as capable of improvement. 

Suppose, for instance, the following letter to have been 
prepared, according to the suggestions on the opposite 
page. 

, r , _ . The Great Plains, June 30, 1876. 

My dear Francis, ' 

I embrace the occasion afforded by the return of a small party whom 

we have just encountered on their way back to civilization, disgusted by a 

series of misfortunes which have induced them to change their plans, to 

send you a few lines, which will inform you that I am improving in health, 

and still like the star of empire making my way westward. I am now with 

a pleasent party of sturdy emigrants, who, with their wives and children, 

are seeking homes in southern California. 

I came upon them yesterday near a pleasant spring, where they had 
halted for their mid-day repast. It was a picturesque sight, and very wel- 
come, I assure you, to a solitary traveller. The wagons, which serve at 
once as vehicles and bed chambers, were filing up in single file, the fore- 
most had allready stopped, the oxen were unyoked, the occupants had dis- 
mounted — and one of the women was in the act of kindling a fire to make 
a pot of tea. I was not slow in excepting a kind invitation to join them, 
which, though they looked somewhat roughly, showed them to have warm 
hearts. As long as our routes lay in the same direction, T will probably 
keep company with them, for, apart from the possible danger of falling 
in with some of the copper colored braves who divide their time between 
hunting the buffalo and cutting travellers throats, good company makes a 
short journey. 

The high air of these plains are healthy and invigorating. The land- 
scape was for a time monotonous ; but since coming in sight of the moun- 
tains we have been charmed with a succession of most sublime views. My 
good Dobbin holds out well, game is abundant, and I hope to receive letters 
from home at the next post-office, which we shall probably reach in about 
two weeks. With kind regards to all, your friend, 

P. S. Hooker. 



162 EXERCISE IN CRITICISING. 

The Ceiticism. — The student criticising the above might say : 
"The chief objection that I have to this Composition is that it is 
tame. The description is not sufficiently vivid or particular to 
interest us in the scene or the persons. Besides, it seems improb- 
able that a person should be making the overland trip alone on 
horseback, as the writer of this letter is represented as doing before 
he met the emigrants. 

u As regards the form of the letter, the name of the person ad- 
dressed should appear, either above the words My dear Francis or 
at the end. 

" The first sentence contains the word occasion, improperly used 
for opportunity ; it is also deficient in unity, in consequence of the 
frequent change of subject. Two sentences are needed : / embrace 
the opportunity of sending this brief note, to be mailed to you by a 
small party whom a series of misfortunes in their western experience 
has led to retrace their steps. It will inform you, etc. 

" The next error I discover is in the spelling of the word pleas- 
ent. I find no fault with the next two sentences ; but in the folio w- 
ing one, bed chambers should be connected with the hyphen, — the 
tautology and redundancy in filing up in single file should be cor- 
rected by leaving out in single file, — allready should have but one 
I, — and the dash after dismounted should be changed to a comma. 

"In the next sentence, the writer does not mean excepting but 
accepting ; and, in stead of the adverb roughly modifying the verb 
loolced, we should have the adjective rough to qualify the subject 
they. 

"The common error of lay for lie next appears. Then I will 
should be changed to I shall, as simple futurity, and not determina- 
tion, is implied. A semicolon after with them is required, to sepa- 
rate the two main divisions of the sentence. The parts of the com- 
pound adjective copper -colored should be connected with the hyphen, 
and travellers, denoting possession, should have the apostrophe 
after s. 

" In the last paragraph, the first verb are must be changed to 
the singular form is, as its subject air is singular. The last sen- 
tence lacks unity, as it contains things that have no connection; 
two new sentences should be made, commencing respectively with 
Game and I hope." 



ORAL CRITICISM. 163 

Criticise orally, in like manner, the following Compo- 
sition on 

fops. 

Fops are young, gay, trifling, men, that try to gain the eye of the ladys 
by showy dress ; they are sometimes called coxcombs, and sometimes dandies. 

Fops often carry a Cain, and apply an eye glass to one eye, and stare at 
people they meet (particularly ladies') in a audacious kind of a manner. 
They talk affected, drawling out their words. They are often quite femi- 
nine. I recollect of once reading of an old roman fop, who he was so at- 
tached to finery and so languid that he kept two sets of finger rings — a 
heavier set for to wear in winter — and a lighter set for summer when the 
heat made his winter rings oppressive and unendureable. 

Most people despise fops ; I do. 

3# 

LESSON LXXXVII. 

Letters of Recommendation are often given by teachers 
to deserving scholars, by employers to persons who have 
been in their service, etc. It is important, in such let- 
ters, not to mislead others by saying more in favor of the 
person recommended than the truth will warrant. The 
following will serve as a specimen ; copy and punctuate. 

Lowell Mass April 25 "76 
The bearer Mr. J. F. Hawes has been in our employ for the last five 
years and we are happy to bear witness to his good character fidelity intel- 
ligence and obliging disposition He is an expert accountant and possesses 
qualifications which will make him useful in any position of trust He leaves 
us to seek a home in the West and we cordially recommend him to any one 
needing the services of a trustworthv assistant 

H Ordway & Co 

A letter answering an advertisement for a clerk, or 
applying for a situation, is frequently required; it should 
be brief and modest. Specimens of such an advertise- 
ment and answer follow ; copy and punctuate. 



164 EXERCISES IN WRITING. 

WANTED immediately an experienced salesman of good address who 
can refer to his last employer Apply by letter in handwriting of applicant 
to Hoyt & Pendleton 34 Front St 



June 2 1876 
Messrs Hoyt & Pendleton 
34 Front St 

Gentlemen 

In answer to your advertisement of this date I beg 
leave to apply for the position in question I was four years with Messrs 
Henry Dillon & Co and was thrown out of employment by their recent fail- 
ure As to my qualifications I refer you to either member of that firm 
Yours respectfully 

Thos Smith jr 

Advertisements. — Every one, whether in business or 
not, has occasion sometimes to draw up an advertise- 
ment. Here brevity is particularly essential. Copy and 
punctuate the following specimens : — 

TO LET Farm-house in Litchfield Co Conn three miles from Harlem 
R R depot Ten rooms piazza garden planted shade and fruit stables six 
months $200 year $325 Apply to H Drummer 41 W 39th St 

GOVERNESS A young lady graduate of Sigourney Inst desires a situ- 
ation as governess can teach French German and the rudiments of music 
has had experience and is fond of children Address F H Intelligencer 
Office 

News Items, or condensed accounts of entertainments, 
accidents, etc., such as are found in the daily papers, fur- 
nish subjects for easy and improving exercises in compo- 
sition. Copy and punctuate the following: — 

School-Reception. — The pupils of Temple St School gave a brilliant 
reception to their friends yesterday afternoon A large audience testified 
their appreciation of the exercises which were extremely creditable to the 
scholars and showed careful training in elocution The dialogue on u The 
Seasons " was worthy of special commendation The short holiday usual 
at this season was announced at the expiration of which on the 2d prox the 
school will reopen We are glad to learn that Miss Stark will continue to 
preside over the Musical Department 



AN OBJECT-LESSOX. 165 

Write a letter of recommendation, from a teacher for a pupil who 
has graduated with the first honors; from the head of a school, for 
an assistant teacher; from an employer, for a clerk; from a lady, 
for her cook. 

Write a letter applying for a situation as entry-clerk ; as book- 
keeper ; as principal of a District School. 

Write an advertisement of goods for sale ; of an article found ; 
of a watch lost; a house to let; a commercial college; the reopen- 
ing of a school; a summer hotel; a religious meeting; a furnished 
house wanted ; a boarding-house wanted ; a coachman and gardener 
wanted ; a lecture. 

Write news-items as follows: — Destructive Fire. Old Folks' 
Concert. Accident on the River. Distinguished Arrival. Ter- 
rific Thunder-storm. Collision on the Red River R. R. Opening 
of the Academy. Marriage in High Life. The Late Freshet. 
Great Mass Meeting. 

^ 

LESSON LXXXVIII. 

The engravings interspersed through the previous 
pages have been made the bases of Compositions. Mate- 
rial objects, also, may be used as the subjects of improv- 
ing exercises that will cultivate the power of observation 
while they furnish ideas, — the want of which is often a 
bugbear to the young when required to compose. 

The teacher, for instance, having called to the black-board a scholar 
whom we shall call A, shows a piece of sponge to the class, and asks what 
it is. They all answer, and A writes the word Sponge on the board as a 
title. 

The teacher proceeds : Let us describe this sponge — dry, as you now 
see it. What is its color? Its weight — light or heavy? Its structure? 
Its shape ? Has it any taste or smell ? These questions are successively 
answered ; and A writes as his first head, Description (when dry). Color, 
tveighf, structure, shape, taste, smell. 

The teacher next places the sponge in a saucer of water, and when it 
has absorbed the water asks what changes are exhibited in color and weight, 



166 ANALYZING A SUBJECT. 

and what property the sponge possesses in a remarkable degree. He asks 
whether the scholars have ever noticed this property of absorbing liquids 
in any thing else besides sponge. One remembers having seen a towel 
made quite wet by having one corner left in a basin. Another thinks of a 
wick drawing up oil, and feeding the flame of a lighted lamp. A makes 
his second head, Property of absorbing water. How changed in color and 
weight, when wet. 

" What is sponge ? " is the next question. Some of the scholars think 
it a vegetable production. The teacher tells them that it belongs to the 
animal kingdom ; that unorganized animal material covers the outside, and 
lines the little pores, of the sponge, when it is found living in the ocean 
fastened to rocks or shells. A takes for his third head, Wliat it is. 

It is next asked where and how sponge is obtained. The scholars do not 
know. The teacher tells them, in the warmer parts of the ocean. The 
sponges we see, come mostly from the Bahama Islands and the Mediter- 
ranean. They are obtained by divers, who go down and detach them from 
their rocky beds. A puts down his fourth head, WJiere and how obtained. 

Next the teacher asks what sponges are used for. Various answers are 
received, — for cleaning slates, washing carriages, sponging clothes, drying 
out boats. One says the doctor uses a sponge in dressing wounds ; another 
has seen a wet sponge on a bank-counter, and the teller moistening his 
thumb and finger by touching it when he is counting bills. Fifth head, 
Uses. 

Finally, it is asked whether any one has ever heard the word sponge ap- 
plied in any other way. One scholar remembers hearing his father say that 
Mr. Higgins was all the time sponging on him. Another answers that a 
man who lives on his neighbors is sometimes called a sponge. The teacher 
then draws out by questions the resemblance between a sponge and a man 
so called, and tells the class that this is a figurative use of the word. A 
makes this his last head ; he has now written as follows : — 

Sponge. 

1. Description (when dry). 

Color, weight, structure, shape, taste, smell. 

2. Property of absorbing water. 

How changed in color and weight, when wet. 

3. What it is. 

4. Where and how obtained. 

5. Uses. 

6. Figurative use of the word. 



ANALYSTS OF SUBJECTS. 167 

The heads thus written out constitute what is called 
an Analysis of the subject. 

Now, from the Analysis just prepared let each mem- 
ber of the class, in the presence of the teacher, write on 
slate or paper a Composition on Sponge, the time for the 
exercise being limited, with the view of inducing rapid 
thought and fluency of expression. Finally, let the Com- 
positions be exchanged, and criticised orally by the schol- 
ars themselves, as on page 162. 



By similar object-lessons develop the following subjects, encour- 
aging prompt and full answers to the questions. Let an Analysis 
be drawn up in each case, Compositions be prepared from it, and 
orally criticised : — 

1. India-rubber. 6. Slate. 11. A book. 

2. Silver. 7. Milk. 12. A ball. 

3. Marble. 8. Paper. 13. An apple. 

4. Iron. 9. A pen. 14. A broom. 

5. Leather. 10. A watch. 15. A feather. 



LESSON LXXXIX. 

Any subject of composition, even an abstract one, 
may with profit be discussed in advance by the teacher 
and the class. A scholar, as before, is called to the 
black-board ; as different topics connected with the sub- 
ject are presented in turn, he makes a note of them, and 
at the end arranges them properly for a formal Analysis. 

This exercise will be found interesting and of great 
aid in helping the young to the ready use of language. 
Let errors and even inelegancies of expression be care- 
fully watched for and criticised. 



168 ORAL DISCUSSION OF SUBJECTS. 

For example, let Rain be the subject. A thinks it proper to tell hist 
what rain is. B or, in case of his not knowing, C goes on to tell as best he 
can that it is water taken up by the air in the form of vapor from the ocean, 
lakes, rivers, etc., and returned to the earth in drops. That this vapor, at 
first invisible, afterward appears in the form of clouds; and that, when the 
clouds become incapable of holding the moisture with which they are 
charged, the particles of vapor unite in drops, which, being heavier than 
the air, fall to the earth. 

D says that rain-water is very pure and not salt. Hereupon E asks 
why, if it comes from the ocean, it is not salt like ocean-water. F can not 
explain the reason ; but another scholar says it is because only the water 
of the ocean is evaporated — the salt is left behind. 

G calls attention to the fact that the quantity of rain differs very much 
in different places. He has read in his Geography that in parts of Peru, 
Arabia, Egypt, Sahara, and elsewhere, it never rains, while on the coast of 
Guiana and Brazil the rain is almost incessant. 

H has heard of countries that have their rain all at one time of the 
year, — the rainy season being their winter, the dry season their summer. 

/thinks it is time to speak of the good effects of rain. It makes the 
earth fruitful ; without it there would be no crops, no animal life. This is 
shown by the barrenness of deserts, where rain seldom or never falls, and 
by the consequences of a long drought in other countries. 

J considers rain useful, because it feeds the rivers and keeps them in 
good order for navigation. K looks upon it as of great benefit to cities in 
washing the streets clean and laying the dust. 

L acknowledges the usefulness of rain, but says it is also sometimes 
attended with bad effects. He points to freshets, and the damage they do ; 
also to the injury done to cotton and other crops by excessive or unseason- 
able rains. 

M speaks of the effect of rainy days on the spirits. N says this leads 
him to think of the best way of spending rainy days, and tells how he man- 
ages to get through them. 

O gives a description of a summer shower — the black clouds — the wind 
— the big drops — the rain descending in sheets — the sudden cessation — the 
re-appearance of the sun — the rainbow — the effect on the air, on vegetation. 

P thinks the subject has been exhausted. The teacher asks whether 
he does not remember some particular rains spoken of in history. He an- 
swers, yes; that in 1781, during the campaign in the Carolinas, the army 
of Morgan and Greene was twice saved from the British by heavy rains 
which swelled the Catawba and the Yadkin after the Americans had crossed, 



ORAL DISCUSSION OF SUBJECTS. 



169 



so that the enemy could not make the passage for many hours, and that 
thus the Continental troops were enabled to reach a place of safety. 

Q thinks the greatest rain recorded in history should not be overlooked 
— the rain of forty days and nights that produced the Deluge — and draws 
upon his imagination to picture some of the scenes connected with that event. 

No further responses being made to the teacher's call for additional 
points, the discussion ends, and the following Analysis appears on the board 
as the result : — 

Rain. 

1. What it is. 

2. Where it comes from. 

3. Why it is not salt. 

4. Rainfall in different places. 

5. Good effects of rain. 
0. Bad effects of rain. 

7. How to spend rainy days. 

8. Description of a shower. 

9. Historical rains. 



Prepare Compositions from the above Analysis ; re- 
vise tliem carefully with the view of correcting your own 
errors. Exchange, and criticise orally. 



The oral discussion of any subject in a familiar style, 
somewhat like the above, will be attended w T ith the great 
advantage of evolving thought. It is the want of having 
something to say, rather than not knowing how to say it, 
that in most cases constitutes the difficulty of composing. 
Subjects with which the class are well acquainted, will, 
of course, be the easiest to discuss and write on. For 
example : — 



Trees. 


Flowers. 


Gardens. 


The dog. 


Snow. 


Mountains. 


Travelling. 


Water. 


Rivers. 


The horse. 


The ocean. 


Gold. 


Steam. 


A market. 


The moon. 


Ice. 


Birds. 


The whale. 


The camel. 


Cities. 



170 ORAL DESCRIPTION. 



LESSON XC. 

As a further exercise for securing correctness and 
fluency in speaking, let one of the class take up an en- 
graving and without previous preparation describe orally 
what he sees in it, while the rest watch for mistakes in 
his lano-ua^e. Whoever thinks he observes an error, 
rises and offers his correction. If the teacher decides 
that he is right, he proceeds with the description till 
some one finds him in fault. The picture, having been 
thus orally discussed, is then made the subject of written 
compositions. 

The engraving on the opposite page, for instance, 
might be treated as follows : — 

A, being first called on, says : " The scene represented I should sup- 
pose to be near some manufacturing village in New England. The time is 
July or August, as the grain is ripe ; and the hour is not far from noon, 
for the shadows cast are short, and a girl is apparently carrying their din- 
ner to two men who are working very diligent." 

Here B interposes an objection, that the adverb diligently, and not the 
adjective diligent, is needed to modify the verb are working. The teacher 
finds his point well taken, and B proceeds : " In the foreground two men 
are engaged in cradling grain — whether wheat or rye I can not tell. They 
lay it evenly in swaths. Near by a dog is setting, watching the approach- 
ing figure." 

Several rise. C, being the first on his feet, is asked for his criticism, 
and says that B used setting for sitting. He is told to go on, and says, " A 
girl has just entered into the field." D hereupon suggests that ircfo is wrong, 
as the object really belongs to the verb enters. " Right," says the teacher ; 
u go on." 

" It seems to be a colored girl," says D. " She has a basket on one 
arm, and a pail in her hand. Behind her is the tow-path of the canal. On 
it is a man with two horses." Here E, rising, claims that is, as just used, 
was wrong, for that two subjects, taken together, require the plural form 
are. D replies that there is but one subject, man — horses being the object 
of the preposition with — and that is, therefore, is right. The teacher 



OF ENGRA VIiVGS. 



171 



decides in D's favor, and he proceeds. " The two horses," says he, " are 
like many that I have seen on canals, old and lean — particularly the hind- 
most one." F rises and makes the point that, as he is speaking of but two, 
he should use the comparative hinder in stead of hindmost. F J s criticism 
is admitted as sound, and so the description of the picture proceeds till 
every part has been touched upon. 




Rural Industrial Scene. 



The engraving suggests the following subjects for compositions : 

Agriculture.— Its importance, as supplying what? Its antiq- 
uity — when and where first practised? The farmer's life — in 
spring — in summer — in autumn — in winter. Agricultural opera- 
tions — ploughing, planting, mowing, cutting grain (describe the 
cradle, as shown in the engraving — why it is used). Advantages 
and disadvantages of the farmer's life. 

Manufactures. — Meaning ; mention some manufactured articles 
made here — mention some imported. Factories; describe their ex- 
ternal appearance (the one in the picture, for instance) ; generally 
situated how, and why? What may take the place of water, as a 



172 EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

motive power? Describe the interior of a factory ; the operatives. 
Where in this country is the most manufacturing done ? Effect of 
hard times on manufacturing industry; on the operatives. Would 
you prefer the life of a farmer or a manufacturer, and why? 

Canals.— Describe (referring to the engraving) the canal itself, 
the tow-path, the horses, the driver, the boat, the bridges; locks. 
To what kind of country best adapted ? Used for what? Compare 
with railroads, for travelling; for transportation. Name any cele- 
brated canals. Canals in cold countries in winter. 

Railroads.— How built ; generally follow what, and why ? Orig- 
inated how and where ? Describe locomotive and train in motion. 
Fast trains ; palace-cars ; depots ; scene when a train arrives. Ad- 
vantages ; save time for travellers; promote commerce; open up 
new regions. Accidents. The Pacific Railroad. 

A Village. — Describe a village — the main street, the houses, 
stores, gardens, school-house, church, hotel. Generally situated on 
what, and why ? Life in a village, compared with a city or a coun- 
try life. 

Take as subjects of oral description like the above, tlie 
engravings on pages 6, 17, 49, 61, 108, and 160, of this 
book. Engravings in Geographies or Readers may be 
treated in the same way. 

Explaining and applying current proverbs, first orally 
and then in writing, is a good exercise. Thus : — 

"Strike while the iron is hot." 

This proverb is evidently drawn from the experience of the blacksmith. 
When he wants to shape a piece of iron, he puts it in his fire and makes it 
red-hot ; then with a few quick blows of his hammer he can forge it into a 
bolt, a horseshoe, or whatever he desires. But if he is dilatory and lets 
the iron cool after taking it out of the fire, all his blows are vain ; he has 
lost the opportunity. 

There is another proverb of like significance, which may be supposed 
to have first come from some farmer — " Make hay while the sun shines." 
When a good hay-day comes, the thrifty farmer always improves it ; he 



EXPLAINING PROVERBS. 173 

will not take the chance of to-morrow's being wet. A few rainy days may 
damage his crop ; so, while the weather is good, he gets his hay in. 

These proverbs teach that we must improve our opportunities, must be 
up and doing while circumstances are favorable. We must not put things 
off, as so many are tempted to do, to their great injury. Shakespeare says, 
" There is a tide in the affairs of men, 
Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune ; " 
but if we do not take it at the flood, it will soon ebb, and we shall find to 
our sorrow that we are too late. The man who has a good business, and 
neglects it till it gradually leaves him, does not make hay while the sun 
shines. The boy who has the opportunity of receiving a good education, 
and fails to improve it, does not strike while the iron is hot, — and for him 
it never gets hot again. 

In like manner, enlarge on the following proverbs : — 

Shoemaker, stick to your last. 

A new broom sweeps clean. 

A burnt child dreads the lire. 

Money makes the mare go. 

Look before you leap. 

A rolling stone gathers no moss. 

It's a long lane that lias no turning. 

One swallow does not make a summer. 

It never rains but it pours. 

Cut your coat according to your cloth. 

Once caught, twice shy. 

A stitch in time saves nine. 

Birds of a feather flock together. 

All is not gold that glitters. 

A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. 

A nod is as good as a wink to a blind horse. 



From the following points write stories in jour own 
language, giving them appropriate titles : — 

I. 

A young man in want of employment went to Paris— had letters 
to a large banking-house— called and presented them. Head of 



174 EXERCISES IN NARRATION. 

house looked over them — told him no vacancy. Much disappointed. 
As he stepped out, observed a pin on the sidewalk, picked it up, 
stuck it in lapel of coat. The banker to whom he had just applied 
happened to he at window — thought he must be a very careful 
young man, to notice and pick up a pin in the midst of his disap- 
pointment — called him back — made a place for him. Young man 
very attentive to business — rose step by step — became partner in 
the house and finally its head — an eminent banker, and one of the 
conspicuous public men of the age. What lesson does this story 
teach ? 

II. 

A miller and his son were driving their donkey before them to 
a fair, to sell him. Troop of girls by the way-side ridiculed them 
for trudging along afoot when they might ride ; so the miller told 
his son to mount. Soon came to some old men. The old men 
rebuked the lad for riding while his father walked ; so the miller 
got up in his son's place. Next met women and children — they 
reviled old man for riding, while the poor boy was tired to death 
and could hardly keep up ; so the miller took up his son behind 
him. 

Near the town a man cried out against them for overloading the 
donkey, and said they were better able to carry him than he them. 
Miller, wishing to please him, tied donkey's legs — got a pole — son 
at one end, he at other — tried to carry donkey across a bridge into 
the town. Crowds ran up to see so strange a sight — laughed, 
shouted, clapped their hands. "Donkey frightened — kicked — broke 
the cords — tumbled off the pole — fell into river — drowned. Old 
man, vexed and? ashamed, made the best of his way home — having 
been taught what important lesson ? 

The above story may be expanded by introducing 
various circumstances in connection with the narrative, 
and giving the words used by the different parties in 
stead of the substance of what they said. 

For further practice in narration, read a brief story to 
the scholars, and require them to tell or write it in their 
own language. 



TABLE OF COMMON ABBREVIATIONS. 



A. B., Bachelor of Arts. 

A. C, ante Christum, before Christ. 

Acct, «c, account. 

A.D., anno Domini, in the year of our 

Lord. 
Agt, Agent* 
A. M., Master of Arts. 

A. M., ante meridiem, morning. 
Anon., anonymous. 

B. C, before Christ. 
Uro., Brother. 

Bt, bought. 

Capt., Captain. 

Cf., confer, compare. 

Chap., ch.. chapter. 

Co., County, Company. 

C. O. D., collect on delivery. 
Col., Colonel. 

Coll., College. 

Com., Commodore; Committee. 
Cor. Sec, Corresponding Secretary. 
Cr., Creditor. 

D. D., Doctor of Divinity. 
Dea., Deacon. 

Deft., Defendant. 

Dep., Deputy; Department 

Do., ditto, the same. 

Doz.. dozen. 

Dr., Doctor, Debtor. 

D. V., deo volente, God willing. 
Ed., Editor. 

E. E., errors excepted. 

E. g., exempli gratia, for example. 

Esq., Esquire. 

Etc., et cetera, and so forth. 

Gen., General. 

H. M.. his or her Majesty. 

Hon., Honorable. 

I., island. Is., islands. 

Ibid., ib., ibidem, in the same place. 

Id., idem, the same. 

I. e., id (t<t, that is. 

I. H. 8., Jesus liominum salvator, Jesus 

Saviour of men. 
I.N.R.I., Jesus Nazarenus RexJudceorum, 

Jesus of Nazareth king of the Jews. 
Inst., instant, of this month. 
J. P., Justice of the Peace. 



j Jun., jr., junior. 

' Lib., 1., liber, book. 

I LL. D., Legum Doctor, Doctor of Laws. 

! L. S., Locus Sigilli, Place of the Seal. 

I M., meridie, noon. 

M. C, Member of Congress. 

M. D., Doctor of Medicine. 

Mem., memorandum. 

Messrs., messieurs, gentlemen. 

M. P., Member of Police. 

Mr., Mister. 

Mrs., Mistress. 

MS., manuscript. MSS., manuscripts. 

N. B., nota bene, mark well. 

No., numero, number. 

O. S., old style. 

Ph. D., Doctor of Philosophy. 

Plff., Plaintiff. 

P. M., Postmaster. 

P. M., post meridiem, evening. 

P. O., Post-office. 

Pr., per, by. 

Pres., President. 

Prin., Principal. 

Prof., Professor. 

Pro tern.., pro tempore, for the time. 
! Prox., proximo, of next month. 
j P. S., Postscript. 
j Qy., Query. 

j Rec Sec, Recording Secretary. 
j Rev., Reverend. 
\ R. R., Railroad. 
| Sec, Secretary. 

Sen., Senior ; Senator. 

S. S., Sunday-School. 

St., Saint; street. 

S. T. D., Sanctoe Theologian Doctor, Doc- 
tor of Divinity. 

Treas., Treasurer. 

Ult., ultimo, of last month. 

Univ., University. 

U. S. A., United States of America. 

U. S. A.. United States Army. 

U. S. N., United States Navy. 

Vid., v., vide, see. 

Viz., videlicet, namely. 

Vol., volume. Vols., volumes. 

Vs., versus, against. 



TABLE OF COMMON EXPRESSIONS 

FROM THE LATIN AND FRENCH, WITH THEIR MEANING. 

[Those from the French are in Italics.] 

$$ 



Ad infinitum, to infinity. 

Ad libitum, at pleasure. 

A la — , after the— manner. 

A la mode, in the fashion. 

Alma mater, fostering- mother. 

Amende honorable, apology. 

A propos, to the point. 

Aufait, skilful, expert. 

Au revoir, farewell till next we meet. 

Bagatelle, trifle. 

Beau-monde, the world of fashion. 

Billet-doux, love-letter. 

Casus belli, ground for war. 

Chef-d'oeuvre, masterpiece. 

Ci-devant, former, formerly. 

Comme ilfaut, in good style. 

Coup de soleil, sunstroke. 

Coup d'etat, stroke of policy. 

De facto, in fact, actual, really. 

De jure, by right, rightful, justly. 

De novo, anew, afresh. 

Dernier ressort, last resort. 

En attendant, meanwhile. 

En masse, in a body. 

En passant, in passing. 

En regie, according to rule. 

En route, on the way. 

Entre nous, between ourselves. 

Esprit de corps, spirit animating persons 

of one vocation ; class-spirit. 
Ex officio, by virtue of his office. 
Ex parte, on one side. 
Ex post facto, after the thing is done. 
Fait accompli, thing done. 
Faux pas, false step, blunder. 
Hors de combat, disabled. 
Ignobile vulgus, the ignoble crowd. 
In extremis, at the point of death. 
In memoriam, to the memory. 
In propria persona, in person. 
In statu quo, in the same state. 
In toto, wholly, entirely. 
Ipse dixit, he himself said it ; an arbitrary 

assertion. 



Ipso facto, by the very act. 

Jeu de mots, play upon words, pun. 

Lapsus linguae, slip of the tongue. 

Lusus naturae, freak of nature. 

Mai apropos, inappropriate, ill-timed. 

Mise en scene, getting up (of a play). 

Modus operandi, mode of operation. 

Multum in parvo, much in little. 

N£ e — t whose maiden name was — . 

Ne plus ultra, nothing beyond, farthest 
point. 

N'importe, no matter. 

Nolens volens, willingly or unwillingly. 

Nom de plume, name under which one 
writes, pseudonym. 

Non compos, of unsound mind. 

Non sequitur, illogical conclusion. 

JVbus verrons, we shall see. 

On dit, it is said. 

Otium cum dignitate, dignified leisure. 

Par excellence, pre-eminently. 

Particeps criminis, an accomplice. 

Passe, past its prime, worn-out. 

Per annum, a year ; per diem, a day. 

Per se, of itself. 

Post mortem, after death. 

Prima facie, at first sight. 

Pro rata, proportionate, proportionately. 

Quantum sufficit, sufficient. 

Quid pro quo, an equivalent. 

Qui vire (on the), on the lookout. 

Recherche, choice. 

Secundum artem, according to rule. 

Sine die, without naming a future day. 

Sine quanon, indispensable condition. 

Sub rosa, privately. 

Sui generis, of its own kind; unique. 

Terra firma, the solid earth. 
Tete-a-tete, face to face, familiar inter- 
view. 
Tout ensemble, the whole. 

Vice versa, the terms being exchanged. 
Vis-a-vis, opposite, person opposite. 

Viva voce, by voice. 



INDEX 



-- S£— 



A, when to be used, 28. 

Abbreviations, followed by the period, 20. 
Table of, 175. 

Adjectives, defined, 49. Proper, 41) ; for- 
mation of, 50. Comparison of, 50. How 
changed, in some cases, when the com- 
parative and superlative are formed, 51. 
In some cases not compared, 52. Com- 
pared irregularly, 53. Compound, 53, 
54. Should be used appropriately, 56. 
May express the meaning of several 
words, 57. Arrangement of, 57. Must 
not be used for adverbs, 102. 

Adjuncts, defined, 109. Position of, 111. 

Adverbs, defined, 101. Formed from ad- 
jectives, 100, 101. Classes of, 100. May 
express the meaning of several words, 
102. Must not be used for adjectives, 
102,103. Comparison of, 104. Common 
errors in the use of, 105. Where they 
should stand, 10G. Difference between 
them and prepositions, 109. 

Advertisements, how to draw up, 164. 

Advice, letters of, 157. 

Alphabet, the, 15. 

Ambiguity, to be avoided, 144. 

An, when to be used, 28. 

Analysis, of words, 1 6. Of sentences, 126- 
131. Of subjects of composition, 1G6, 
167, 169. 

Apostrophe, the, with s forms the plural of 
figures, letters, and signs, 23. Used in 
the possessive form of nouns, 32. Rule 
for its use, 138. 

Articles, defined, 119. 

Auxiliaries, 74. Forms of the, required 
with thou, 78. The use of, 85. Care to 
be exercised in combining with a par- 
ticiple or verb-root, 86. Familiar and 
corrupt contractions of, with not, to be 
avoided in writing. 92. 



B. 

Base, of sentences, 13, 14. 

Be, present of, 75. Past of, 76. Not to 

be used as an auxiliary in place of 

have, 91. 
Bill, form of, 158. Of exchaDge, 159. 
Brackets, for what used, 13S. 

C. 

Can and may, not to be interchanged, 85. 

Capitals, commence sentences, 7, 9, 10, 11. 
Commence proper nouns, 18. Com- 
mence leading words in the titles of 
books, etc., 20. Commence the names 
of objects personified, 47. Commence 
proper adjectives, 49. Commence lines 
of poetry, 113. Rules for, 124,' 125. 

Clauses, defined, 69, 114. Generally set off 
by the comma, 114. Examples of the 
principal kinds of. 12S. 

Colon, the, rule for, 135. 

Comma, the, separates names used in a 
series, 18. "When to set off statements 
introduced by who, which, or that, 40. 
Generally sets off clauses, 114. Rules 
for, 116,136,137. 

Comparative, how formed. 50. Used in 
comparing two objects, 55. 

Comparison, of adjectives, 50; irregular, 

53. Of compound adjectives, 53, 54. 
Of adverbs, 104. 

Composition, exercises in, 20, 33, 60. 65, 84, 
87, 91, 98, 107, 113, 124, 127, 150, 151, 156, 
160, 165, 171-174. 

Compound, words, 29, 30. Adjectives, 53, 

54. Forms of the verb. 73. Sentences, 
127. Subjects, 128. Predicates, 128. 

Conjunctions, defined, 113. Common er- 
rors in the use of, 115. 

Consonants, defined, 16. 

Correction of errors in speaking and writ- 
ing, arranged promiscuously, 139-146. 



178 



INDEX. 



Credit, letter of, 156. 
Criticism, oral, 100-163. 

D. 

Dash, the, used to denote the omission of 

words, 8. Sets off side-heads, 20. Kules 

for, 138. 
Did, used in past negative and emphatic 

forms of the verb, 84. 
Discussion, oral, of subjects, 167-169. Of 

engravings, 1T0. 
Do, present of; 75. Past of, 76. Used in 

present negative and emphatic forms of 

the verb, 84. 
Draft, form of, 159. 

E. 

Exchange, bill of, 159. 

Exclamation-point, the, follows sentences 
expressing exclamations, 11. Follows 
most interjections, 118. Rule for, 134. 

F. 

Feminine, nouns, how formed, 30. 

Foreign Expressions, not to be used in 
place of pure English words, 143. Table 
of, with their meaning. 176. 

Forms, mercantile, 156. Letter of intro- 
duction, 156; of credit, 156; of advice, 
157; with account, 157; with invoice, 
157; ordering merchandise, 157. Bi.l, 
153. Receipt, 15S. Promissory notes, 
15S. Draft, 159. Bill of exchange, 159. 

Future forms of the verb, 78. 

G. 

Gender, masculine and feminine, 30. 

H. 

Have, present of, 75. Past of, 76. Implies 

past time connected with the present, 

86. 
Hyphen, the, used to connect the parts of 

a compound word, 27. Used to connect 

syllables, 29. Rule for, 139. 



I, the pronoun, always a capital, 3S. 

Infinitive, the, 65. How used, 66. Its 
sign to omitted after certain verbs, 66. 

Interjections, defined, 117. The principal, 
117, 118. Mostly followed by the excla- 
mation-point, 118. 



Interrogation-point, the, follows sentences 
expressing questions, 10. Follows the 
interjections eh and hey, 118. Rule for, 
134. 

! Introduction, letters of, 153, 156. 

I Invitations, 155. Replies to, 155. 

j Irregular, plurals, 23. Comparison of ad- 
jectives, 53; of adverbs, 104. Verbs, 92; 
chief parts of the, 93-96. 



Language, defined, 122. Kinds of, 122. 

Letters (characters), represent sounds, 15. 
Divided into vowels and consonants, 16. 

Letters (epistles), kinds of, 151. Date of, 
152. Address of, 152. Subscription of, 
152. Superscription of, 152, 153. Forms 
of, 154, 155. Of introduction, 153, 156. 
Business, 156. Of credit, 156. Of ad- 
vice, 157. With account, 157. With in- 
voice, 157. Ordering merchandise, 157. 
Of friendship,. 159; specimen of, 161. 
Of recommendation, 163, 165. Answer- 
ing advertisements, 163, 164. Applying 
for situations, 165. Exercises in writing, 
156, 1C0. 

31. 

Masculine gender, 30. 

May and can, not to be interchanged, 85. 

Menibers, of sentences, 113. Generally 
separated by the semicolon, 114. Have 
distinct subjects and predicates, 127. ' 

N. 

Names, 16. Common, 17. Proper, 17. 

Narration, exercises in, 174. 

News-items, specimen of, 164. Exercises in 
writing, 165. 

Notes, forms of, 155. Promissory, 153. 

Nouns, IS. Distinguished as common and 
proper, 18. Distinguished as singular 
and plural, 21. Plural of, how formed, 
21, 22. Irregular in the plural, 23. 
Plural of proper, 21. Plural of com- 
pound, 24. Plural of foreign, 25. Dis- 
tinguished as masculine and feminine, 
30. Distinguished as subject, object, 
and possessor, 31, 32. Possessive form 
of, 82. Modifying participles must be 
in the possessive form, 70. 

Number, singular and plural, 21. 



INDEX. 



179 



o. 

O, always a capital, 118. 

Object, the, 81, 45, 63. Of a preposition, 
109. 

Objective Forms, of pronouns, 45. Re- 
quired after verbs that denote existence 
merely, if an object precedes, 64. 

Object-lesson, for oral discussion and anal- 
ysis, 1G5, 166. 



Paragraph, when to commence a new, 20. 

Parentheses, for what used, 9S, 133. 

Participial Clauses, defined, 69. Punc- 
tuation of, 70. Position of, TO. Must 
be used with the noun or pronoun they 
are intended to modify, TO. Enable us 
to combine sentences, 71. 

Participles, defined, 6T. How generally 
formed, 6T, Changes sometimes re- 
quired in the verb-root, 68. Present, 
74. Past, T6. Care to be exercised in 
combining- two or more with the same 
auxiliary, 90. 

Past, forms of the verb, T6. Of be, have, 
and do, T6. Participle, T6. 

Period, the, used after sentences, 9. Used 
to denote abbreviations, 20. Eules for, 
134. 

Personifying objects, 4T. 

Plural, 21. Of nouns, how formed, 21, 22. 
Of proper nouns, 21. Nouns irregular in 
the, 23. Of figures, letters, and signs, 
23. Of compound nouns, 24. Of for- 
eign words, 2.\ 

Possessive Form, the, of nouns, 32, 33. 
Unpleasant repetition of, to be avoided, 
34. Of pronouns, 46. Of a noun or pro- 
noun modifying a participle should be 
used, 70. 

Predicate, the, 126. Compound, 128. 

Prepositions, defined, 108. Object of, 109. 
Difference between adverbs and, 109. 
Must be used appropriately with cer- 
tain words, 111. 

Present, forms of the verb, T4. Of be, 
have, and do, T5. Participle, T6. 

Pronouns, defined, 88. Must be in the 
same number and gender as their nouns, 
38. Ending in self, selves, 39. Used 



to introduce additional statements, 39. 
Used in asking questions, 41. Used in- 
definitely, 41. Subjective forms of, 45. 
Objective forms of, 45; follow prep- 
ositions, 45. Possessive forms of, 4Cj. 
Corrupt forms of, 4T. Modifying par- 
ticiples must be in the possessive form, 
TO. Different, not to be used in the 
same sentence, with reference to the 
same person, 141. The same, not to bo 
applied to different persons or things in 
the same sentence, 141. 

Proverbs, exercises in explaining and ap- 
plying, 1T2, 173. 

Punctuation, rules of, 134-139. 

Punctuation-points, 5S, 134. 

Q. 

! Quotation-points, used for what, 3T, 139. 
! Quoted Sentences, 125. 

| 

! Receipt, form of, 15S. 

| Redundancy, to be avoided, 145. 

i Regrets, forms of, 155. 

Review, a synoptical, 122, 123. 

Rhyming, 113. 

Rules, for capitals, 124, 125. Of punctu- 
ation, 134-139. 



S. 

Semicolon, the, used to separate the main 
divisions of sentences, 60, 114. Eules 
for, 135. 

Sentence-building, 13, 133. 

Sentences, must affirm something, T. Ex- 
pressing statements, 6; expressing com- 
mands, 9; expressing questions. 10; ex- 
pressing exclamations, 10. Base of, 13, 
14. Building up, 13, 133. Taking to 
pieces. 14. Must contain a verb, 61. 
Members of, 113. Clauses of, 114, 12S. 
Quoted, 125. Analysis of, 126-131. 
Principal parts of. 129. Combining, 40, 
69, 116, 132. 

Shall and will, difference to be observed 
in the use of. 78. 

Should and would, difference to be ob- 
served in the use of, 85. 

Singular number, 21. 

Slang, to be avoided, 144. 



180 



INDEX. 



Sounds, forty simple in the English lan- 
guage, 15. 

Subject, of a sentence, 31. Of a verb, 61 ; 
how found, 62; how it may be repre- 
sented, 63. A singular, requires a sin- 
gular form of the verb, 88. A plural, 
requires a plural form of the verb, 88. 
Of a sentence, how it may be modified, 
126. Logical, 126. Compound, 128. 

Subjective Forms, of pronouns, 45. Re- 
quired after verbs that denote existence 
merely, if a subject precedes, 64. Re- 
quired when pronouns are used inde- 
pendently in participial clauses, 73. 

Superlative, how formed, 51. Used in com- 
paring more than two at once, 55. 

Syllables, defined, 16. Dividing words 
into, 29, 30. 

T. 

Tautology, to be avoided, 145. 

That, applied to what, 40. Where to stand, 
with its statement, 41. Should be used 
after a superlative, very, and no, 56. 

There, used to introduce a sentence, 102. 

Thou, forms of the auxiliaries required with, 
T8. 

To, unites with a verb-root to form the in- 
finitive, 65. Should not be separated 
from the root by an intervening word, 
GG. Omitted after certain verbs, 66. 
Not to be used for the full infinitive, 
1-12. 

u. 

Unity, violations of, corrected, 14S, 149. 



Variety necessary in the construction and I 
length of sentences, 147. 

Verb-root, the, 65. 

Verbs, defined, 60. Subjects of, 61-63. Ob- ! 
jects of, 63. Infinitive, 65. Affirm the 
act or state in different ways, 72. Com- 
pound forms of, 73. Present forms of, 



74. Past forms of, 76. Future forms 
of; 78. Forms of, that represent the 
subject as acting, 80. Forms of, that 
represent the subject as acted upon, 
81, 82. Forms of, denoting continu- 
ance, 83. Negative forms of, 84. Em- 
phatic forms of, 84. Common errors in, 
corrected, 88, 98, 99. Plural, required 
with two or more singular subjects taken 
together, 88, 114. Singular, required 
with two or more singular subjects 
taken separately, 90, 114. Construction 
of, with singular nouns implying a col- 
lection of individuals, 90, 91. Chief 
Parts of, 92. Regular, 92. Irregular, 
92. Chief Parts of the irregular, and 
exercises on them, 93-96. 

Verse, arranging words in, 113, 121, 150, 
151. 

Vocative Expressions, defined, 128. 

Vowels, defined, 16. 

W. 

"Which, applied to what, 40, 42. Where to 
stand, with its statement, 41. 

Who, applied to what, 40. Where to stand, 
with its statement, 41. 

Will and shall, difference to be observed 
in the use of, 78. 

Words, express thoughts, 5. Form sen- 
tences, 5. Spoken, made up of sounds, 
15. Written, made up of letters, 15. 
Analyzed into syllables, 16. Formation 
of compound, 29, 30. Arranging, in 
verse, 113, 121, 150, 151. Eight differ- 
ent classes of, briefly defined, 119. Must 
be classified according to their use in 
the sentence, 119. Must be used only 
in authorized significations, 143. When 
essential to the meaning, not to be 
omitted, 145. 

Would and should, difference to be ob- 
served in the use of, 85. 



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Grammar-School Geography. Large quarto, 122 pages; with nu- 
merous Maps and Illustrations. It is very full on Physical Geography, particularly 
that of the United States. This work is intended to follow the Intermediate, or be 
used instead of it. Both are alike philosophical in their arrangements, accurate in 
their statements, judiciously adapted to the school-room, chastely and lavishly illus- 
trated, attractive in their external appearance, and generally just what the intelligent 
teacher desires. 

High-School Geography and Atlas. Geography, large 12mo, 405 
pages. Richly illustrated. Atlas, very large quarto. Containing a complete set of 
Maps for study; also, a set of Reference Maps for family use. These volumes are 
intended for High-Schools and Academies; they cover the whole ground. The 
Atlas will be found fuller and more reliable than former atlases, and will answer 
every practical purpose of reference for schools and families. 

Physical Geography. Large quarto, 104 pages. The most interest- 
ing and instructive work on this subject ever presented, lavishly illustrated, and em- 
bracing all late discoveries and the most recent views of scientific writers. Contain- 
ing 19 pages of Maps and copious Map-Questions. 



In the present editions of these works, the text of eao 1 ! has undergone a rigid revision, 
and the manv geographical chancres in both worlds hav<^ boon carefullv embodied. The 
importance of PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY and MAP-DRAWING has been fully rec- 
ognized, the Physical Geography of the United States receiving special attention. To 
the Maps the Publishers point with pride, as the most beautiful specimens in this linn 
of art ever offered to the American public. 



D. APPLE TON & CO.' 8 PnBLICATlONS. 



Cornell's Physical Geography: 

ACCOMPANIED WITH NINETEEN PAGES OF MAPS, A GREAT VARIETY OF MAP 

QUESTIONS, AND ONE HUNDRED AND THIRTY DIAGRAMS AND 

PICTORIAL ILLUSTRATIONS ; AND EMBRACING A 

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE 

Physical Features of the United States* 

By S. S. CORNELL. 
1 vol. Large 4to. 104 pages. 

The attention of teachers is particularly requested to this new volume 
by the Author of Cornell's popular Series of Geographies, in the belief 
that it will be found to embrace all that is valuable and interesting in 
this important branch of study, and to be, beyond competition, the best 
text-book on the subject. It is no mere rehash of time-honored details, but 
has been drawn from original sources, and is on a level with the present 
advanced state of the science. Clearness, adaptation to the school-room, 
inductiveness of arrangement, and the presentation of one thing at a 
time and every thing in its proper place — features which have contrib- 
uted so largely to the success of the other Geographies of the Cornell 
Series — are among its striking characteristics. 

It is interesting to the learner. The dry statistical style usual in 
similar text-books has been avoided, and the great wonders of Nature, 
always fascinating to the inquiring mind, are presented in the most strik- 
ing manner, so as to rivet the attention and impress the memory. 

The illustrations are numerous and beautiful, and are used wherever 
it was thought they would help to elucidate the text. Maps and diagrams 
have been liberally introduced. The maps are executed in the finest 
style of the art — carefully drawn, distinctly engraved, and tastefully col- 
ored according to the most approved style. Each map is accompanied 
with questions in great variety. 

The physical features of our own country receive" particular attention 
in a closing chapter. The student is aided by a fine Physical Map of the 
United States, which (in addition to the features usually presented) shows 
the mean annual temperature of different parts of the country, the vege- 
table products of different sections, and their mineral resources, the rela- 
tive values of the precious metals produced in the several States being 
clearly represented to the eye by an ingenious plan. A Map of Alaska, 
on a comparatively large scale, is also presented. 

It is believed that the above features, besides others which there is 
no space here to enumerate, cannot fail to recommend this work to all. 



-A. NOTABLE ■W^OiEtK. 



FIRST BOOK OF ZOOLOGY. 

By EDWARD S. MORSE, Ph. £>., 
Formerly Professor of Comparative Anatomy and Zoology in Bowdoin College. 

I vol., i2mo. Profusely illustrated. Price, $1.25. 



Prof. Morse has adapted this First Book of Zoology to the pupils of the United 
States. The examples presented for study are such as are common and familiar to 
every school-boy — as snails, insects, spiders, worms, mollusks, etc. When marine 
animals are cited, the examples are selected fiom creatures that may be found in 
all of the markets of the interior, such as the clam, lobster, and oyster, with its para- 
sites. The book will thus be equally well adapted to all parts of the country, and the 
material easily accessible to pupils of every section. 

The illustrations, of which there are upwaid of three hundred, have, with few ex- 
ceptions, been drawn from Nature by the author, expressly for this work. The ab- 
sence of those antiquated figures which have done such long service in text-looks of 
natural history, is among the excellences of Prof. Morse's book which teachers will ap- 
preciate. The drawings are made in simple but graphic outlines, with special refer- 
ence to their easy reproduction by the pupil on the slate or black-board. 

Unlike all other books on this subject, as well as the greater number of scientific 
text-books in general, the plan of this work, as already explained, makes it possible to 
have the easiest lessons precede the more difficult ones. The first chapter of the book 
is so simple and comprehensible that it can readily be mastered by a child of six years 
of age. Hence, the pupil is not compelled at the outset, as is frequently the case, to 
grapple with problems that he cannot understand, nor burden his memory with a long 
scientific nomenclature. His knowledge is not forced beyond what he can corroborate 
by his own investigation and research. Knowledge thus acquired stimulates the pupil 
to continued effort and eager study. 

To the attainments of Prof. Morse as a scientist, naturalist, and instructor, it is 
hardly necessary to allude. His brilliant success in the lecture-field, ar.d his achieve- 
ments in scientific research, have already given him a national reputation, while his 
work in .the class-room, and as Professor in Bowdoin College, places him in the highest 
rank of progressive educators. 

His book here announced was prepared at the urgent solicitation of the publishers, 
and they are confident that it will prove to be the most interesting school publication 
of the season. 

Prof. Morse has also consented to prepare, on the same plan, an advanced work on 
/oology, suitable for colleges, science classes, etc., which will be duly announced. 

D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 

549 & 55 ! Broadway, New Yore 



ientific Text-Books, 



Toumans's First Book Of Botany. Designed to cultivate the Observing 
Powers of Children., By Eliza A. Youmans. nmo. 183 pages. $1.00. 
This little book has proved a wonderful success, and is emphatically a step in the 
right direction. Although it has been issued but a short time, it has been adopted for 
use in the cities of Chicago, St. Louis, New York, Columbus, Nashville, Milwaukee, 
etc., etc., and in the States of Maryland, Illinois, and Arkansas. It is to be speedily 
followed by the Second Book of Botany and six large and beautifully-colored Botanical 
Charts, after the plan of Henslow. 

Hon. Superintendent Bateman, of Illinois, says: "As a sample of tre true method 
of teaching the elements of science in primary schools, Miss Youmans's book is deserv- 
ing of the highest praise. In this respect I have seen nothing equal to it. The same 
method, pursued in all the natural sciences, would soon give us a generation of accu- 
rate and intelligent young observers of natural objects and phenomena, and change for 
the better the whole tone and character of common-school instruction. 

" Newton Bateman, Stifit Pttblic Instruction** 

XiOckyer's Astronomy, accompanied with numerous Illustrations, a Colcred 

representation of the Solar, Stellar, and Nebular Spectra, and Celestial Charts of 

the Northern and the Southern Hemispheres. American Edition, revised and 

specially adapted to the Schools of the United States. i2mo. 312 pages. 

Qliackenbos's Natural Philosophy. Revised Edition. Embracing the 
most recent Discoveries in the various Branches of Physics, and exhibiting the 
Application of Scientific Principles in Every-day Life. Adapted to use with or 
without Apparatus, and accompanied with Practical Exercises and numerous Illus- 
trations. i2mo. 450 pages. 
Quackenbos's Philosophy has long been a favorite Text-Book. To those who have 
used it, no words of commendation are necessary ; to those who have not, we would 
earnestly suggest a careful examination of its claims. We would here merely say that 
it has recently been thoroughly revised, in view of recent discoveries in Physics, 
and the general acceptance of new theories respecting Heat, Light, and Electricity, 
the Correlation and Conservation of Forces, etc. The present Edition is in all respects 
an accurate exponent of the present state of science. 

Huxley and Youmans's Physiology. The Elements of Physiology and 
Hygiene. A Text-Book for Educational Institutions. By Thomas H. Huxley, 
F. R. S., and William Jay Youmans, M. D. i2mo. 420 pages. 

Nicholson's Text-Book of Geology. Well condensed, accurate, and clear. 
i2mo. 266 pages. 

Nicholson's Text-Book of Zoology. A comprehensive Manual for the use 

of Academies and Colleges. By Prof. Nicholson, of Toronto. i2mo. 353 pages. 

Wrage's German Grammar: based on the Natural Method— Language be- 

fore Gra7nmar. Teaches German rapidly, pleasantly, and thoroughly. i2mo. 

350 pages. 

Krusi's New Series of Drawing:-Books : Teacher's Manual, and Synthetic 
Series of Inventive Drawing (4 Nos.), now ready. Something new and excellent 
— one of the most valuable and efficient of educational agencies. 

Send, for Catalogues and further information, to 

D. APPLETON & CO., 549 & 551 Broadway, N. Y. 



